Unit 2: Modern Political Thought
The Greek polis served as an influential model of citizenship and governance for centuries. Modern political philosophers, however, found that they needed to rethink politics according to a new, more realistic understanding of the way humans actually behave. As a result, modern government requires both a keen historical sense and the pragmatic use of power.
Our unit begins with the Italian political philosopher and civil servant, Niccolò Machiavelli. Machiavelli is credited with the distinctly modern notion of an artificial (rather than natural) state in which the leader should rule swiftly, effectively, and in a calculated manner. Many associate his theories with the use of deceit and cunning in politics; after Machiavelli, politics was conceived of as an art in which the best rulers governed shrewdly, carefully calculating about enemies, populations, and the timing of certain actions.
Thomas Hobbes adapted this Machiavellian approach on a much larger scale. For Hobbes, the state should be sovereign and secular; the citizens should give up both their allegiance to the church and their rights in exchange for physical security. However, while modern political thought has been built upon the Machiavellian notion of the artificiality of the state, the moderns disagreed on how people behaved and on the degree of a government's strength and pervasiveness necessary to properly govern citizens.
John Locke responded to a strict concept of sovereignty with the idea of constitutional government. Like Hobbes, Locke imagined a civil society capable of resolving conflicts in a civil way, with help from government. However, Locke also advocated the separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but, at times, an obligation of citizenship. These three thinkers represent the foundation of modern state theory.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 40 hours.
Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
- explain the difference between classical political thought and modern political thought both in terms of historical context and method;
- describe the influence that the Renaissance and the Enlightenment had on political thought;
- define the "state of nature";
- discuss and analyze the ideas and arguments regarding justice, equality, sovereignty, citizenship, and the nature of the individual in the works of Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Locke, with particular regard to "the social contract";
- define constitutional government and explain Locke's arguments in support of it; and
- explain Locke's influence on the content of the U.S. Constitution.
2.1: Timing and Cunning in Politics
Read Chapters I-XVII of The Prince. In many ways, Machiavelli is considered the first modern political scientist. In The Prince, Machiavelli argues that successful statecraft requires tools that many traditional philosophical and political ideals simply could not provide, and he sees politics as a public responsibility that cannot be based upon the same ethics that guide private life.
Study Guide Questions:
- What is Machiavelli's view of human nature?
- Is Machiavelli's approach to government similar to or different from Plato's idealized vision in The Republic, and how so?
- How is Machiavelli's concept of virtue similar to or different from that of Aristotle?
- Machiavelli questions whether it is better for the prince to be loved by the people or feared by the people. He argues that both are important, and if possible, the prince should be equally feared and loved. However, he also calls this an unattainable ideal, and finally concludes that the prince should choose to be feared, rather than loved, by the people. Is Machiavelli right?
Watch this lecture. As you watch, consider Machiavelli's background compared to that of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The political landscape of Europe was considerably bigger and more complex during the Renaissance and thus allowed Machiavelli to advance some of the first political concepts and models.
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Read this article. Machiavelli's theory of mercenaries was the first of its kind, and this article explains the historical and contemporary debates surrounding Machiavelli's theory.
- Receive a grade
Answer these questions on the major themes in Machiavelli's The Prince.
2.2: Sovereignty
Read this text. As you read, consider whether you think it would be possible for Hobbes to make the claims he does without Machiavelli's theories laid out almost a century and a half earlier.
Thomas Hobbes designed the first theory of the sovereign state. In Leviathan, he sees life before the emergence of states as "nasty, brutish, and short", and envisions the Leviathan, a sovereign state led by a king who indiscriminately rules over his territory and citizenry. In turn, citizens give up their freedom for security.
Study Guide Questions:
- According to Hobbes, why should we accept law and government?
- According to Hobbes, what form of law and government should we accept?
- Describe how, according to Hobbes, civil society comes to be and is sustained out of his version of the state of nature.
Watch this lecture. As you watch, consider Hobbes' assertion of the innate equality of all human beings, which in some ways is a precursor to the concept of inalienable rights.
- Receive a grade
Answer these questions on the major themes in Hobbes' Leviathan.
2.3: Constitutional Government
Read this text. While Hobbes saw human nature as brutal, Locke's thinking reflected the ideals of the European Enlightenment. For enlightenment thinkers, people were broadly considered to be equal and independent. Locke's thinking revolutionized how people thought about citizenship by proposing that all individuals have a right to "life, liberty, and property".
Also consider the rights of private ownership in the United States. As these rights are not directly spelled out in the Constitution, it can be said that Locke's influence was once again a driving philosophical force in the American mind as the Industrial Revolution was progressing.
Study Guide Questions:
- Describe and evaluate Locke's defense of property rights. Bear in mind the distinction between rights over one's person (self-ownership rights) and rights over material resources (world ownership rights).
- Explain Locke's doctrine of consent to government. Is the doctrine strictly necessary to his account of legitimate government? Carefully distinguish between different kinds of consent (explicit, tacit, etc.), and pay close attention to conquest and usurpation, where power is acquired without a contract.
Watch this lecture. Compare Locke's version of the natural state of humanity to that of Hobbes and Plato.
Watch this lecture.
Consider Locke's influence on Abraham Lincoln. Both Lincoln and his rival Stephen Douglas professed that consent was necessary to grant slavery legal status in the US. However, the concept of consent is pivotal. Why does Smith consider Stephen Douglas' concept of consent to slavery to be flawed logic?
Also, consider the rights of private ownership in the United States. As these rights are not directly spelled out in the Constitution, it can be said that Locke's influence was once again a driving philosophical force in the American mind as the Industrial Revolution was progressing.
Watch this lecture. For Enlightenment thinkers, all people were equal and independent, and this allowed new credible political ideologies to develop. Consider the pre-Enlightenment views of the ruling classes in European countries as compared to the United States, which theoretically had an open and free political system in which all were able to participate. Also take note that a key tenet of Lockean philosophy is the right of the people to revolt against a government that is corrupt or otherwise unable to carry out the wishes of its constituency.
In his Second Treatise, John Locke maintains the natural liberty of human beings; all people are born free, and the attempt to enslave any person creates a state of war. Yet Locke himself had invested in the slave trade and drafted the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina which granted absolute power over slaves. How do you think Locke reconciled his beliefs with his actions regarding slavery?
Post your response in the discussion forum, and check back to see what some of your classmates have written. Feel free to leave comments on the posts of your classmates.
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Political philosophers like Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke spent much of their life and work analyzing the nature of the modern state. All lived during times of great political and social upheaval throughout Europe, and these men, including many of their contemporaries, began questioning the notion of the divine, God-given rule of the monarchical system and challenging their role as citizens in it.
Machiavelli is credited with the distinctly modern notion of an artificial state in which the leader should rule swiftly, effectively, and in a calculated manner. Many associate his theories with the use of deceit and cunning in politics; after Machiavelli, politics was conceived of as an art in which the best rulers governed shrewdly, carefully, and in a calculating manner.
Thomas Hobbes adapted this Machiavellian approach on a much larger scale. For Hobbes, the state should be sovereign and secular; the citizens should give up both their allegiance to the Church and their rights in exchange for physical security. However, while modern political thought has been built upon the Machiavellian notion of the artificiality of the state, the moderns disagreed on how people should behave and on the degree of a government's strength and pervasiveness necessary to properly govern citizens.
John Locke responded to a strict concept of sovereignty with the idea of constitutional government. Like Hobbes, Locke imagined a civil society capable of resolving conflicts in a civil way, with help from government. However, Locke also advocated the separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but, at times, an obligation of citizenship. These three thinkers represent the foundation of modern state theory.
For this assessment, you will compare and contrast the theories of Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Locke on a number of topics that relate to the evolution and establishment of the modern state. Using this unit's primary readings as a guide, summarize each author's positions on these topics. In the feedback provided after you submit your answers you will find the location in the respective texts where the answer can be found.
- Receive a grade
Answer these questions on the major themes in Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government.
Unit 2 Assessment
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Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
- This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
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