Unit 3: The French Revolution and Its Legacy
Many argue that the French Revolution was the most important modern revolution. The revolutionary leaders abolished the monarchy and altered most of France's social and political institutions to make them more rational and modern. They proclaimed a republic, instituted parliamentary elections, introduced educational reforms, created a new revolutionary calendar, and reorganized France's electoral districts to make representation more democratic. Unlike the American Revolution, which resulted in a government that has lasted until today, the French revolutionaries rejected their initial ideals when the new government began to use violence and terror to maintain its hold on power. By 1799, the revolution succumbed to a dictatorship at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). As the self-proclaimed emperor, Napoleon expanded his empire, plunging Europe into 15 years of conflict, shifting alliances, and French domination. The Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) reshaped European political boundaries and indirectly resulted in revolutions worldwide. The French Revolution (1789–1799) abolished the monarchy and transformed France's political system into a republic, a government where elected officials held power. While elections and many public policy reforms were implemented, the revolution was extremely drastic and violent. It also resulted in the ascension of Napoleon and the reorganization of Europe. In this unit, we explore the roots and impact of the French Revolution, the ascension and importance of Napoleon, the partitioning of Poland and Lithuania, and the Congress of Vienna of 1815 that reorganized Europe. As you study, think about how it may have been inspired by the American Revolution and how it helped shape the modern world.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 11 hours.
Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
- identify the immediate and long-term causes of the French Revolution;
- describe how the French Revolution affected 19th-century Europe;
- explain how the French Revolution devolved into chaos and terror;
- explain why Napoleon was able to rise in power and his impact on Europe;
- explain the causes of the partitioning of Poland and its effects on the development of modern Europe; and
- explain how the Congress of Vienna and Napoleon's conquest of Europe gave rise to European nationalism.
3.1: Roots of Revolution
During the medieval period (from the fall of the Roman Empire in 400–1500 CE), France had developed a feudal system based on landed aristocracy and a monarchy. The class system of the French ancien régime (the old regime) was divided into three estates: the First Estate included the monarchy (the king and queen) and the clergy; the Second Estate included members of the nobility or aristocracy; everyone else comprised the Third Estate. This included peasants, artisans, lawyers, merchants, and the bourgeoisie (the middle class). The system was top-heavy, which means the Third Estate was oppressed, deprived of basic rights, and existed to serve the whims of those in the Second and First Estates. By the end of the 18th century, the French government was virtually bankrupt after participating in many European wars, such as the Seven Years' War from 1756–1763. The ideas of the Enlightenment had already taken hold in Europe, and the protesters were inspired by the American Revolution a decade earlier. The financial oppression, lack of political power, and excesses of the Second and First Estates had become too much to bear. While several smaller rebellions had occurred during prior years, historians mark the starting point for the French Revolution as June 20, 1789, when members of the Third Estate met to sign the Tennis Court Oath. They were infuriated by a new series of taxes the government had imposed to pay for the current economic crisis. The protesters vowed to stick together and withdraw from the Estates-General – the French legislature – until the government adopted a written constitution.
Watch this lecture to understand the class system in France that led to the revolution. You should be able to describe what life was like for people in the Third Estate and why they supported the armed protests.
Read this text about the tax system in France and its effect on the Third Estate. Compare the French tax system to that in America before the colonists rebelled against the British.
Read this text for more analysis of the causes of the French Revolution. You should be able to explain the structural, long-term causes of the French Revolution. What events precipitated the outbreak of revolution in 1789? How do historians determine long- and short-term causes of revolution? What difficulties arise when we try to link long and short-term factors?
3.2: The Republic, Reign of Terror, and Thermidorean Reaction
The French Revolution was characterized by its violence and use of the guillotine to execute those who opposed the revolution, especially members of the First and Second Estates. This culminated in the execution of Louis XVI (1754–1793) and his wife Marie Antoinette (1755–1793) in 1793. Louis XVI, and especially Marie Antoinette, became symbols of the excesses of the First Estate at the expense of the Third. They lived in luxury at the Palace of Versailles – their main estate was one of the most luxurious palaces in the world. Living lives of excess and leisure when the Third Estate struggled to survive, they symbolized the "evils" of privilege the Third Estate was fighting against. Their execution resounded throughout Europe and the world. The medieval concept of the divine right of kings – the idea that the monarch is chosen and designated by God to rule over the people – was metaphorically and literally toppled with the beheading of the monarchs. The revolutionaries asserted the will of the people and the idea that they were the ones with true power.
Watch this slideshow, which shows pictures of the Palace of Versailles, to get a glimpse of the life of Marie Antoinette and Louis XIV. Consider the funds needed to maintain the palace and this luxurious lifestyle. How do you think these excesses connect with the taxes the monarchy imposed on the Third Estate and the revolution?
Read this account of the daily life of Marie Antoinette. Consider the hierarchies involved and procedures needed to tend to the queen's basic "needs". These disparities flamed the ire of those in the Third Estate. How did her life compare with those who were part of the Third Estate?
Read this letter Marie Antoinette wrote to her mother in 1773. Think about the previous document that illustrated her daily life and how she lived in the Palace of Versailles. Do you think she understood the situation members of the Third Estate were in? How did this disconnect illustrate a core cause of the French Revolution?
Once the monarchy had been deposed, the revolutionary government suffered from instability. Infighting and mistrust prevented the revolutionaries from creating a new functional government and led to the so-called Reign of Terror. More than 300,000 people were arrested, and 17,000 were executed as enemies of the revolution from 1793 to 1794. Watch this video for an overview of the events of the French Revolution. Hostilities began in May 1789 with the meeting of the Estates-General – a general assembly representing the three French estates of the realm: the nobility, the church, and the common people. Summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, the Estates-General sat for several weeks in May and June 1789. They arrived at an impasse when the three estates clashed over their respective powers. Members of the Third Estate created a National Assembly, which signaled the outbreak of revolution. On July 14, a mob famously stormed the Bastille, a medieval fortress and prison that represented royal authority in the center of Paris, and demanded the arms and ammunition stored there.
We can see several similarities between the American and French Revolutions. Both rebellions arose from the financial chaos of the Seven Years' War (1763–1766) when the British and French governments demanded their respective working and middle classes pay for their wartime and personal excesses. The British imposed burdensome taxes on the American colonists, while the First and Second Estates in France did the same to the Third Estate. In fact, the French military and financial support for the American Revolution helped bankrupt France. The ideas and philosophies of the Enlightenment fueled the American and French revolutions. As we explored in Unit 2, the 1700s saw the rise of capitalism, industrialization, secularization, and fundamental changes in class structure. Rousseau argued that legitimate civil authority is only derived from civil contracts, which the governor and governed enter freely. The American colonists and French people demanded this equality and modern change. However, the French experience differed from the American colonists because it was primarily a class struggle brought about by economic disparities. The French revolutionaries wanted to reorder their society, while the Americans wanted to end colonial rule and create a new country based on self-government. The Americans did not want to undermine the basic class structure of their society. They wanted to throw the British out and end their colonial oppression. The revolutionaries in both countries used violence to achieve their ends. After he had witnessed the chaos of the French Revolution, the conservative thinker Edmund Burke (1729–1797) wrote that revolutions cause more problems than they solve. He argued that change should be introduced gradually. He said that revolutions abandon generations of knowledge and experience, and societies should protect themselves from the temptation of revolutionary ideas. For Burke, slow and steady change will win. In contrast, Thomas Paine (1737–1809) argued that people have the right to revolt when their government fails to protect their natural rights. People have an obligation to protect their rights when their government does not. Watch this video, which describes the second stage of the French Revolution. The French revolutionary war began soon after Louis XV and his wife tried to escape Paris in 1791. However, the fighting went badly quickly, and prices rose sky-high. In August 1792, a mob assaulted the Royal Palace in Paris and arrested the King. In September, the Assembly abolished the monarchy and declared a republic.
Listen to this lecture from 8:30 to the end. Focus on how Merriman characterizes revolutionary terror. How does he describe Maximilien Robespierre's (1758–1794) role?
Watch this lecture on the Reign of Terror, the period of violence that occurred after the onset of the revolution. It was incited by conflict between rival political factions and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.
The revolutionary government faced significant opposition due to the Reign of Terror, which prompted a counter-revolution called the Thermidorian Reaction. This describes the liberal-conservative counter-revolution that followed the end of the Reign of Terror after Robespierre was executed on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794, according to the French revolutionary calendar). The state had become all-powerful and violent. The alliance purged the government of revolutionary political forces (led by the Jacobin Club) and attempted to restore the political, social, and economic order of 1789. After several military successes, Napoleon Bonaparte, the statesman and military leader, rose to prominence and became the authoritarian leader of France in 1799. He declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. Read this primary source document, which describes how fears of counter-revolution fueled revolutionary extremism and how the violence led to the Thermidorian reaction and the end of the Republic.
As you watch this lecture, think about how the Reign of Terror destabilized the revolutionary movement, led to the fall of the Republic, and opened the door to Napoleon's authoritarian takeover.
3.3: Revolution and New Government
The key symbolic start of the French revolution occurred on July 14, 1789, when a group of revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, the central prison that was a symbol of the monarch's power and abuses. The revolutionaries severed the social contract between the monarchy and Third Estate when they released the prisoners. The revolutionaries effectively rejected the laws of the establishment.
Watch this video on the causes of the French Revolution. Think about how philosophical ideals had inspired these protests in France and the United States.
As in the United States, the revolutionaries in France convened a new government, the National Assembly, in June 1789. They approved a new Constitution of 1791, and Maximilien Robespierre took leadership of the government to serve as president of the National Convention. Inspired by the English Bill of Rights (1689) and the U.S. Bill of Rights (which was also drafted in 1789), the French penned the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), one of the most important documents for the establishment of the rights of all peoples. Read the Declaration of the Rights of Man. How does it compare with the English and American Bill of Rights? Can you identify any common ideas and differences?
Read the Declaration of the Rights of Women (1791). Think about how the framers of this document differed from the American revolutionaries in promoting women's rights.
The French revolutionary government also extended rights to Jewish people. This was a significant move for several reasons. First, the French asserted that human rights were universal. Secondly, they rejected the established view that Jewish people were subhuman, a belief many Europeans had held since the medieval period. Read this document to understand its revolutionary nature. Pay attention to the distinction between individual and communal rights. What rights did it extend to Jews in 1791? How does it compare to the English and American ideas of human rights?
Read the constitution of the first French Republic. Compare it to the American Declaration of Independence (1786). Can you identify any similarities and differences? Think about how these aspects reflect the different social experiences and historical context of the American and the French revolutionaries.
Let's analyze some primary resources of the French Revolution and counter-revolution. Choose two of these primary documents we have not yet analyzed. Analyze and compare the two documents by focusing on these questions: Who authored the document? Were they in favor or opposed to the French Revolution? When was it written before, after, or during the French Revolution? What is the argument in the document? Does it support or oppose the French Revolution? Where do you see Enlightenment ideology? What is the document's significance in helping to develop a detailed understanding of the French Revolution and its aftermath?
3.4: Napoleon and Legacies of the Revolution
The primary legacies of the French Revolution include the demise of feudalism, the end of absolute monarchy, support for modernization, the rise of nationalism, the disestablishment of the church, the promotion of human rights, and support for democracy. The French Revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who declared himself emperor of France in 1804. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato once described the perils of democratic government. He said democracies are fragile, frequently dissolve into chaos in the pursuit of absolute equality, and are susceptible to being replaced with a tyrant. In what ways do you think France followed Plato's prediction? How about today?
Watch this lesson on the background of Napoleon, including his early life, education, and rise to power. Think about his background and how this may have contributed to his way of thinking.
Watch this video, which discusses the last stages of the French Revolution and how Napoleon Bonaparte was able to overthrow and replace the French Directory with the French Consulate. Napoleon rose to power during the French First Republic, which formed at the end of the French Revolution. He proclaimed himself dictator and then emperor under the First French Empire in 1804.
Napoleon instituted several lasting reforms. He centralized the administration of the départements and created a higher education system, a tax collection system, a central bank, codes of law, and road and sewer systems. He created a set of civil laws, the Napoleonic Code or French Civil Code, that combined several legal principles (supported during the revolution) into one document. For example, his legal code formalized equality under the law and the right to property and abolished the feudal system. Several countries, including Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, have adopted these legal standards into their legal traditions. Read this text on the nature of Napoleon's government reforms.
Read this text, which examines the impact of the Napoleonic Code and how it promoted the rule of law. Make a list of ways the Napoleonic Code promoted the rule of law. Think about the impact of each code.
To solidify his power, Napoleon formed a partnership with the Catholic Church. This move was part of the counter-revolution against the secular nature of the revolution of 1789.
As you read, think about why Napoleon sought the backing of the papacy and how this alliance was a rebuke of the radicalism of the French Revolution.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Napoleon fought against Europe's powers to create a single, consolidated French empire. His military successes not only upended the traditional feudal systems in northern Italy, Germany, and Belgium, but they had worldwide implications in 1808 when Napoleon deposed the Spanish King Ferdinand VII (1784–1833). The political instability that resulted in Spain created a power vacuum that would embolden revolutionary movements in Spain's colonies in the Americas and Asia.
Read this article on the impact of the Napoleonic wars on Europe and on revolution. How did Napoleon's ambitions change Europe and the world economically, socially, and geopolitically?In 1812, Napoleon made the fatal mistake of invading Russia. The size and climate of Russia strained and decimated Napoleon's forces, which were spread across the continent. Napoleon's ambitions also prompted the European powers to ally together against him. At the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat by the Prussian-English allied forces. Abdicating the throne, Napoleon was exiled first to the Island of Elba and later to Saint Helena, where he ultimately died of stomach cancer in 1821. Watch this video on the fall of Napoleon. Why was Napoleon ultimately defeated? What was the impact of his ambitions in France and Europe?
Although his rise to power was brief, Napoleon fundamentally changed Europe. Nevertheless, France restored its monarchy at the end of the Napoleonic Wars after the Congress of Vienna in 1814. King Louis XVIII (1755–1824) created a constitutional monarchy and preserved many of the liberties of the French Revolution during his rule from 1814 to 1824. Watch these two lectures on the aftermath of Napoleon and the restoration of the French government. How was France organized politically and administratively after the Congress of Vienna in 1815? What were the causes of the Revolution of 1830?
Let's analyze some primary resources on the rise and impact of Napoleon. Choose two of these primary documents we have not yet analyzed.
Analyze and compare the two documents by focusing on these questions: Who authored the document? Did they support or oppose Napoleon? When was it written before, after, or during Napoleon's reign and the Napoleonic Wars? What is the argument in the document? Does it support or oppose Napoleon? Where do you see Enlightenment ideology? What is the document's significance in helping to develop a detailed understanding of Napoleon and his legacy?
3.5: The Partitions of Poland-Lithuania
Napoleon's actions had a global geopolitical impact. For example, in 1803, Napoleon sold 530 million acres of land – from New Orleans to the Great Lakes – to the United States for $15 million to raise funds for his European campaigns. Known as the Louisiana Purchase, Napoleon helped expand the fledgling United States' borders and changed North America's geopolitical balance.
Examine this map, which shows the land the United States gained in North America with the Louisiana Purchase. Think about how the United States benefited from Napoleon's reign and the long-term impact this land acquisition would have on global geopolitics.
The French Revolution and Napoleonic ascension also significantly affected Poland and Lithuania. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, established in 1569, was one of the most populated areas in Europe. It was established as a semi-federal/confederal, aristocratic government. The Commonwealth operates by sharing authority between the central and local governments. It combined ideas of democracy and constitutional monarchy and limited the monarch's power via the asserted power of the aristocracy – similar to the Magna Carta in England. The Commonwealth, established between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, covered much of eastern Europe, including Latvia, parts of Ukraine and Estonia, and Belarus. Although officially a partnership, Poland maintained the majority of power in the Commonwealth. While it eventually degraded into partial anarchy, the Commonwealth, at its apex, stood against the Russian, Ottoman, and Swedish empires. The first century of the Commonwealth was its most successful—many historians call it a Golden Age. The Parliament was powerful and could keep it out of the Thirty Years War that ravaged Europe in the 17th century. The Enlightenment also significantly affected the Commonwealth. The ideas of constitutionalism, human rights, and universal education predominated intellectualism in the Commonwealth. These ideas spread throughout Europe and greatly impacted the ideology of government that characterized early modern revolutions. Listen to this article about the Polish Enlightenment until 4:01. Consider how the ideas of the Polish Enlightenment influenced beliefs about revolution in the late 18th century.
Things began to fall apart for the Commonwealth during the end of the 17th century. The Khmelnytskyi Uprising of 1648 – the largest Cossack uprising in history weakened stability. The Russian Tsar readily supported the Cossacks by moving into Ukraine and exerting its influence to supplant Polish authority. In 1655, the Swedes allied with Transylvania to launch an invasion, further weakening the Commonwealth. An alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor and involvement in the Great Turkish War led to even more chaos. These external pressures caused internal instabilities, which devolved into near anarchy. Read this lecture until the Partition of Poland. Make a timeline as you read to note the important dates and events. Then, make a T chart that lists the successes of the Commonwealth on one side and the challenges it faced on the other.
The Four-Year Sejm of 1788–1792 tried to pass several reforms to preserve the Commonwealth. The Constitution of 1791 was its last failed attempt to maintain the political entity, but the partitions by neighboring Russia, Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy had already taken place. By 1795, the three foreign powers had carved up its territories, and the Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. Poland and Lithuania would remain absorbed until the end of World War I, when in 1918, the nations of Poland and Lithuania would once again establish themselves as independent nations.
Read this continuation of the lecture notes you just read. Make a chart with four columns. In the first column, note the key points of the first partitioning. In the second column, note the key points of the second partitioning. In the third column, note the key points of the third partition. In the fourth column, note the key points of the Constitution of 1791.
- Read this article about the partitioning of Poland. Add what you learn to the timeline, T chart, and four-column chart you created. Why do you think we have included the partitioning of Poland in a course about revolution? How did external conflicts lead to internal instability and foreign powers' takeover of the Commonwealth? In what ways did Napoleon's aggressive conquests and continental ambitions in Europe prompt Russia, Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy to carve up the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth?
3.6: The Congress of Vienna
Napoleon's downfall had great geopolitical consequences for the countries of Europe, which were tasked with drawing the correct national boundaries for each country in the wake of Napoleon's short-lived empire and the devolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Vienna was held in Vienna, Austria, in 1815 and led by Austrian statesman Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859).
Watch this video to begin our investigation. Consider the lasting impact of Napoleon's ambitions on the boundaries of Europe and how they set the stage for the development of modern Europe.
The prominent dignitaries and leaders of the day attended the Congress of Vienna. Britain's foreign secretary Robert Stewart (1769–1822), whose formal title was Viscount Castlereagh, and Arthur Wellesley (1769–1852), the first Duke of Wellington, represented Great Britain. Prince Metternich represented Austria, and Prince Karl August von Hardenberg (1750–1822) represented Prussia. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838), the French foreign minister, represented the newly-instated King Louis XVIII (1755–1824). Russia was dually represented by Count Karl von Nesselrode (1780–1862) and Tsar Alexander I (1777–1825). While inferior powers such as Spain and Portugal were invited to send representatives to the Congress, Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France made the major decisions. Interestingly, the negotiators initially excluded France from the discussions, but Talleyrand-Périgord was soon able to assert his presence to take part. The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy, an ally of Britain during the War of 1812, also sent representatives. The main objective of the Congress of Vienna was to reorganize Europe, as the major powers negotiated to divide the territories Napoleon had defeated among themselves. For example, Italy was divided into eight parts, while 300 German states were consolidated into 39. Great Britain gained control of more colonial territory, while Russia exerted its control over Poland. Read this article to explore how the Congress participants reorganized the borders of their respective countries. Pay attention to what happened to the German states, which previously existed as independent kingdoms. How do you think merging these jurisdictions might influence the future consolidation of Germany into one state? Note Russia's gains in Poland in light of what you have learned about the Partitioning of Poland. What did Great Britain gain? How did these decisions impact less powerful countries like Spain, Norway, and Portugal?
Many 19th-century observers criticized the Congress as a conservative backlash to revolutionary liberalism, since it opposed the human rights and liberties the French and American revolutionaries had asserted. They complained that the so-called Conservative Order ignored the civil rights of the people who lived in the reorganized states in support of the interests of the major powers. However, opinions about the Congress shifted in the 20th century – many historians came to appreciate the "feats of diplomacy" the participants had achieved and credited the Congress with preserving the peace for 100 years, until World War I. The Paris Peace Conference of 1918, at the end of World War I, was modeled after the Vienna Congress.
Read this lesson on the Congress of Vienna to understand these different perceptions. As you read, make a two-column chart. In the first column, note the definition and characteristics of the Conservative Order. In the second column, note key features of the Concert of Europe. Do you agree with the 19th-century critics or the 20th-century historians on the impact of the Congress of Vienna?
The Congress of Vienna significantly impacted the development of nationalism, which led to the outbreak of World War I. While the participants may have meant to prevent unrest and instability, some believe the Congress helped create a larger nationalist movement across Europe. Watch this lecture to understand these trends. What role did the Congress of Vienna play in developing nationalism and the European geopolitical structure?
The reorganization changed the power structure of Europe, as Russia, Great Britain, and France became increasingly assertive. Their power struggles led to the Crimean War (1853-1856), pitting Russia against Great Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire.
Read this text on the diplomatic fallout and consequences of the Congress of Vienna. As you read, make a chart. In the first column, note the key points of 1848 – the year of revolution. In the second column, note the key points of the Crimean War. In the third column, note key points for the Holy Alliance. In the fourth column, note the key points of the Quadruple Alliance. Then, write a summary to explain how the Congress of Vienna led to failed revolutions, diplomatic upheaval, and the development of alliances in Europe, which eventually contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
As the 19th century progressed, France and England came to control most of Europe. However, the ideas of nationalism, Marxism, and socialism led those who lived in countries with less power to chafe at the hegemony of France and England. The stability of the Congress of Vienna devolved. This instability and burgeoning nationalism led to the "year of revolution" in 1848, when republican revolts swept the continent from Sicily to France, Germany, and Austria. While these revolutions ultimately failed, they reminded the European powers that they had not extinguished the zeal for civil rights and representation.
Watch this video. Think about how the Congress of Vienna contributed to the growth of nationalism and the outbreak of revolution. How did the famine of 1845 further destabilize Europe and contribute to the reassertion of republicanism?
Watch this video. What were the most important causes of the 1848 revolutions in Europe? How did these revolutions compare with the French Revolution? Why was there no revolution in Britain?
Focus on these questions as you read this essay. What are the most important features of a Marxist interpretation of revolutionary change? How does Christopher Hill characterize the causes and outcomes of the English Revolution?
As the 19th century ended, nationalism, Marxism, and socialism gained momentum, and Europe became embroiled in unrest. By 1861, Italy's states and kingdoms had joined to form a nation, while Germany also united as a country under the leadership of Otto Von Bismark (1815–1898) in 1871. These two new nations were bursting with nationalistic fervor and eager to assert themselves as European powers, but they lacked the imperial clout of England and France.
In addition to a tangle of alliances that had begun forming in Vienna in 1815, this jostling would come to a head when Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914. The web of alliances and colonies caused Europe and the world to plunge into the conflagration of World War I. This war would impact geopolitics worldwide. The Russian Revolution presaged Soviet and Japanese ambitions against Asia, and the world tumbled into an even larger global firestorm known as World War II.
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