Marketing and Sustainability: Business as Usual or Changing Worldviews?

2. The Psychology and Theory of Worldviews

To understand the differing positions and perspectives of sustainability, the psychology and theory of worldviews must first be examined. Such a theoretical understanding allows reflections about the meaning, composition, and learning involved in the creation and change of worldviews. Worldviews can be defined as "the inescapable, overarching systems of meaning and meaning- making that inform how humans interpret, enact, and co-create reality". The concept of a worldview has been utilized across many social science disciplines and has become recognised as an important concept with respect to understanding sustainability behavior, decision-making, and policy. A worldview is how we make sense of the world and frame the fundamental realities of the world around us. This includes the assumptions about life, objectives, (un)desirable behaviors and relationships, and acceptable goals. Overall it provides "the epistemic and ontological foundations for other beliefs within a belief system". Most importantly, worldviews shape how individuals perceive issues, their potential solutions and become a fundamental part of individuals' identities. However, while individuals have their own worldview, societies also possess shared, taken for granted, dominant worldview(s) which serve to shape a society's understanding and framing of issues and societal problems. The dominant worldview can be held by the majority of a society or, more critically, by the most powerful groups of society.

The notion of a worldview is sometimes used interchangeably with the concept of a social paradigm. However, Olsen et al. argue that a social paradigm is limited to the perceptual and cognitive orientation that a group of individuals uses to interpret and explain aspects of social life. As such, a social paradigm is more restrictive than a worldview as it is held by only a specific group and not all members of society, and it pertains only to certain aspects of social life, not the totality of social existence. As such, a worldview is holistic construct which encompasses the totality of human life and existence, such as ontological and epistemological beliefs.

Beliefs, values, and attitudes are common in marketing literature, but how these concepts are differentiated, especially from a worldview, is often a point of debate (i.e.,). Olsen et al. describe a worldview as containing belief systems and social values associated within the system. Therefore, to understand a worldview, beliefs and values must be examined. Social values involve what is good and bad or (un)desirable in social life communicating what "should be". Rokeach describes a value as "a single belief…that has a transcendental quality to it, guiding actions, attitudes, judgements, and comparisons across specific objects and situations beyond immediate goals to more ultimate goals" For example, one may value family, love, and success. Rokeach also identified two types of values: terminal values, which are composed of beliefs about desirable end-states (i.e., world peace); and instrumental values composed of beliefs about modes of conduct (i.e., honesty). Thus, values help guide our actions as well as our preference for societal objectives (i.e., equality) and initiatives (i.e., policy). In contrast, a belief is a specific idea about any aspect of life that individuals are convinced is true, regardless of evidence. Similarly, a belief system is a set of interrelated beliefs which deals with a broad social condition, such as belief systems about family life, economic activities, human rights, and the meaning of life. As such, individuals have numerous belief systems which may sometimes be inconsistent with each other. Lastly, attitudes differ from both beliefs and values. An attitude is described by Rokeach as "an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation". As such, an attitude is an expression of a value. Consequently, while values can be measured, this is usually done by asking questions related to beliefs and attitudes.

Koltko-Rivera also extends knowledge about beliefs and worldviews in a slightly different way. He described three types of beliefs: descriptive or existential beliefs, which are capable of being true or false; evaluative beliefs, wherein an object of belief is judged to be good or bad; and prescriptive or proscriptive beliefs, in which the desirability of means or end of action is judged (usually considered a value). According to Koltko-Rivera, only beliefs regarding the nature of reality, desirable (proper) guidelines for living, or the (non)existence of important entities are worldview beliefs. This interpretation is similar to Olsen et al. and Rokeach's description of values, but goes beyond social dimensions to include the nature of reality. Extending the worldview concept even further, Hedlund-de Witt created the Integrative Worldview Framework, which comprises five fundamental beliefs related to ontology (nature of reality), epistemology (knowledge of reality), axiology (what is a 'good life'), anthropology (the human role and position is in the universe), and societal vision (how to organize and address societal problems). In this case, guidelines about living, rather than the nature of reality or existence of entities, may be related to the social world, specifically the values, beliefs, and attitudes related to sustainability (i.e., anthropology and societal vision).