Work, Energy, and Power in Humans

Energy Conversion in Humans

Our own bodies, like all living organisms, are energy conversion machines. Conservation of energy implies that the chemical energy stored in food is converted into work, thermal energy, and/or stored as chemical energy in fatty tissue. (See Figure 7.25.) The fraction going into each form depends both on how much we eat and on our level of physical activity. If we eat more than is needed to do work and stay warm, the remainder goes into body fat.

Figure 7.25 Energy consumed by humans is converted to work, thermal energy, and stored fat. By far the largest fraction goes to thermal energy, although the fraction varies depending on the type of physical activity.

Source: Rice University, https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/7-8-work-energy-and-power-in-humans
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Power Consumed at Rest

The rate at which the body uses food energy to sustain life and to do different activities is called the metabolic rate. The total energy conversion rate of a person at rest is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and is divided among various systems in the body, as shown in Table 7.4. The largest fraction goes to the liver and spleen, with the brain coming next. Of course, during vigorous exercise, the energy consumption of the skeletal muscles and heart increase markedly. About 75% of the calories burned in a day go into these basic functions. The BMR is a function of age, gender, total body weight, and amount of muscle mass (which burns more calories than body fat). Athletes have a greater BMR due to this last factor.

Organ	Power consumed at rest (W)	Oxygen consumption (mL/min)	Percent of BMR
Liver & spleen	23	67	27
Brain	16	47	19
Skeletal muscle	15	45	18
Kidney	9	26	10
Heart	6	17	7
Other	16	48	19
Totals	85 W	250 mL/min	100%

Table 7.4 Basal Metabolic Rates (BMR)

Energy consumption is directly proportional to oxygen consumption because the digestive process is basically one of oxidizing food. We can measure the energy people use during various activities by measuring their oxygen use. (See Figure 7.26.) Approximately 20 kJ of energy are produced for each liter of oxygen consumed, independent of the type of food. Table 7.5 shows energy and oxygen consumption rates (power expended) for a variety of activities.

Power of Doing Useful Work

Work done by a person is sometimes called useful work, which is work done on the outside world, such as lifting weights. Useful work requires a force exerted through a distance on the outside world, and so it excludes internal work, such as that done by the heart when pumping blood. Useful work does include that done in climbing stairs or accelerating to a full run, because these are accomplished by exerting forces on the outside world. Forces exerted by the body are nonconservative, so that they can change the mechanical energy $( KE+PE )$ of the system worked upon, and this is often the goal. A baseball player throwing a ball, for example, increases both the ball's kinetic and potential energy.

If a person needs more energy than they consume, such as when doing vigorous work, the body must draw upon the chemical energy stored in fat. So exercise can be helpful in losing fat. However, the amount of exercise needed to produce a loss in fat, or to burn off extra calories consumed that day, can be large, as Example 7.13 illustrates.

Example 7.13 Calculating Weight Loss from Exercising

If a person who normally requires an average of 12,000 kJ (3000 kcal) of food energy per day consumes 13,000 kJ per day, he will steadily gain weight. How much bicycling per day is required to work off this extra 1000 kJ?

Solution

Table 7.5 states that 400 W are used when cycling at a moderate speed. The time required to work off 1000 kJ at this rate is then

$\text { Time }=\frac{\text { energy }}{\left(\frac{\text { energy }}{\text { time }}\right)}=\frac{1000 \mathrm{~kJ}}{400 \mathrm{~W}}=2500 \mathrm{~s}=42 \mathrm{~min}$ .

Discussion

If this person uses more energy than he or she consumes, the person's body will obtain the needed energy by metabolizing body fat. If the person uses 13,000 kJ but consumes only 12,000 kJ, then the amount of fat loss will be

$\text { Fat loss }=(1000 \mathrm{~kJ})\left(\frac{1.0 \mathrm{~g} \mathrm{fat}}{39 \mathrm{~kJ}}\right)=26 \mathrm{~g},$ .

assuming the energy content of fat to be 39 kJ/g.

A person is measuring the amount of oxygen in blood and metabolic rate using a pulse oxymeter. The pulse oxymeter is strapped to the person’s wrist, and the index finger is inside the clip.

Figure 7.26 A pulse oxymeter is an apparatus that measures the amount of oxygen in blood. A knowledge of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels indicates a person's metabolic rate, which is the rate at which food energy is converted to another form. Such measurements can indicate the level of athletic conditioning as well as certain medical problems.

Activity	Energy consumption in watts	Oxygen consumption in liters O₂/min
Sleeping	83	0.24
Sitting at rest	120	0.34
Standing relaxed	125	0.36
Sitting in class	210	0.60
Walking (5 km/h)	280	0.80
Cycling (13–18 km/h)	400	1.14
Shivering	425	1.21
Playing tennis	440	1.26
Swimming breaststroke	475	1.36
Ice skating (14.5 km/h)	545	1.56
Climbing stairs (116/min)	685	1.96
Cycling (21 km/h)	700	2.00
Running cross-country	740	2.12
Playing basketball	800	2.28
Cycling, professional racer	1855	5.30
Sprinting	2415	6.90

Table 7.5 Energy and Oxygen Consumption Rates (Power)

All bodily functions, from thinking to lifting weights, require energy. (See Figure 7.27.) The many small muscle actions accompanying all quiet activity, from sleeping to head scratching, ultimately become thermal energy, as do less visible muscle actions by the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. Shivering, in fact, is an involuntary response to low body temperature that pits muscles against one another to produce thermal energy in the body (and do no work).

The kidneys and liver consume a surprising amount of energy, but the biggest surprise of all is that a full 25% of all energy consumed by the body is used to maintain electrical potentials in all living cells. (Nerve cells use this electrical potential in nerve impulses.) This bioelectrical energy ultimately becomes mostly thermal energy, but some is utilized to power chemical processes such as in the kidneys and liver, and in fat production.

An f M R I scan of a human head with energy consumption in the vision center shown by a bright spot. This brightness indicates the energy consumption.

Figure 7.27 This fMRI scan shows an increased level of energy consumption in the vision center of the brain. Here, the patient was being asked to recognize faces.

World Energy Use

Energy is an important ingredient in all phases of society. We live in a very interdependent world, and access to adequate and reliable energy resources is crucial for economic growth and for maintaining the quality of our lives. But current levels of energy consumption and production are not sustainable. About 40% of the world's energy comes from oil, and much of that goes to transportation uses. Oil prices are dependent as much upon new (or foreseen) discoveries as they are upon political events and situations around the world. The U.S., with 4.5% of the world's population, consumes 24% of the world's oil production per year; 66% of that oil is imported!

Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources

The principal energy resources used in the world are shown in Figure 7.28. The fuel mix has changed over the years but now is dominated by oil, although natural gas and solar contributions are increasing. Renewable forms of energy are those sources that cannot be used up, such as water, wind, solar, and biomass. About 85% of our energy comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels – oil, natural gas, coal. The likelihood of a link between global warming and fossil fuel use, with its production of carbon dioxide through combustion, has made, in the eyes of many scientists, a shift to non-fossil fuels of utmost importance – but it will not be easy.

Figure 7.28 World energy consumption by source, in billions of kilowatt-hours: 2006.

Source: Rice University, https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/7-9-world-energy-use
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

The World's Growing Energy Needs

World energy consumption continues to rise, especially in the developing countries. (See Figure 7.29.) Global demand for energy has tripled in the past 50 years and might triple again in the next 30 years. While much of this growth will come from the rapidly booming economies of China and India, many of the developed countries, especially those in Europe, are hoping to meet their energy needs by expanding the use of renewable sources. Although presently only a small percentage, renewable energy is growing very fast, especially wind energy.

For example, Germany plans to meet 20% of its electricity and 10% of its overall energy needs with renewable resources by the year 2020. (See Figure 7.30.) Energy is a key constraint in the rapid economic growth of China and India. In 2003, China surpassed Japan as the world's second largest consumer of oil. However, over 1/3 of this is imported. Unlike most Western countries, coal dominates the commercial energy resources of China, accounting for 2/3 of its energy consumption.

In 2009 China surpassed the United States as the largest generator of $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ . In India, the main energy resources are biomass (wood and dung) and coal. Half of India's oil is imported. About 70% of India's electricity is generated by highly polluting coal. Yet there are sizeable strides being made in renewable energy. India has a rapidly growing wind energy base, and it has the largest solar cooking program in the world.

Figure 7.29 Past and projected world energy use

Solar cell arrays lined up in a field.

Figure 7.30 Solar cell arrays at a power plant in Steindorf, Germany

Table 7.6 displays the 2006 commercial energy mix by country for some of the prime energy users in the world. While non-renewable sources dominate, some countries get a sizeable percentage of their electricity from renewable resources. For example, about 67% of New Zealand's electricity demand is met by hydroelectric. Only 10% of the U.S. electricity is generated by renewable resources, primarily hydroelectric. It is difficult to determine total contributions of renewable energy in some countries with a large rural population, so these percentages in this table are left blank.

Country	Consumption, in EJ (10¹⁸ J)	Oil	Natural Gas	Coal	Nuclear	Hydro	Other Renewables	Electricity Use per capita (kWh/yr)	Energy Use per capita (GJ/yr)
Australia	5.4	34%	17%	44%	0%	3%	1%	10000	260
Brazil	9.6	48%	7%	5%	1%	35%	2%	2000	50
China	63	22%	3%	69%	1%	6%		1500	35
Egypt	2.4	50%	41%	1%	0%	6%		990	32
Germany	16	37%	24%	24%	11%	1%	3%	6400	173
India	15	34%	7%	52%	1%	5%		470	13
Indonesia	4.9	51%	26%	16%	0%	2%	3%	420	22
Japan	24	48%	14%	21%	12%	4%	1%	7100	176
New Zealand	0.44	32%	26%	6%	0%	11%	19%	8500	102
Russia	31	19%	53%	16%	5%	6%		5700	202
U.S.	105	40%	23%	22%	8%	3%	1%	12500	340
World	432	39%	23%	24%	6%	6%	2%	2600	71

Table 7.6 Energy Consumption – Selected Countries (2006)

Energy and Economic Well-being

The last two columns in this table examine the energy and electricity use per capita. Economic well-being is dependent upon energy use, and in most countries higher standards of living, as measured by GDP (gross domestic product) per capita, are matched by higher levels of energy consumption per capita. This is borne out in Figure 7.31. Increased efficiency of energy use will change this dependency. A global problem is balancing energy resource development against the harmful effects upon the environment in its extraction and use.

A scatter plot of power consumption per capita versus G D P per capita for various countries. Power consumption in kilowatt per capita is shown along the horizontal axis and G D P per capita is show along the vertical axis.

Figure 7.31 Power consumption per capita versus GDP per capita for various countries. Note the increase in energy usage with increasing GDP.

Conserving Energy

As we finish this chapter on energy and work, it is relevant to draw some distinctions between two sometimes misunderstood terms in the area of energy use. As has been mentioned elsewhere, the "law of the conservation of energy" is a very useful principle in analyzing physical processes. It is a statement that cannot be proven from basic principles, but is a very good bookkeeping device, and no exceptions have ever been found. It states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system will always remain constant.

Related to this principle, but remarkably different from it, is the important philosophy of energy conservation. This concept has to do with seeking to decrease the amount of energy used by an individual or group through (1) reduced activities (e.g., turning down thermostats, driving fewer kilometers) and/or (2) increasing conversion efficiencies in the performance of a particular task – such as developing and using more efficient room heaters, cars that have greater miles-per-gallon ratings, energy-efficient compact fluorescent lights, etc.

Since energy in an isolated system is not destroyed or created or generated, one might wonder why we need to be concerned about our energy resources, since energy is a conserved quantity. The problem is that the final result of most energy transformations is waste heat transfer to the environment and conversion to energy forms no longer useful for doing work. To state it in another way, the potential for energy to produce useful work has been "degraded" in the energy transformation.

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Date:	Sunday, May 19, 2024, 4:48 AM