Introduction to Financial Statements

1. Introduction to Financial Statements

Figure 2.1 Derek's Venture. Technology can be a great tool for those who are far away from friends and family. Tablets are one way for those unfamiliar with technology to become comfortable using technology to connect with others.

As a teenager, Derek loves computers. He also enjoys giving back to the community by helping others. Derek understands that many senior citizens live far away from their families, resulting in infrequent visits and loneliness. This summer he is considering combining both things he enjoys by working with the local retirement center. His idea is to have workshops to show the senior citizens how to connect with their families through the use of technology. The director of the retirement center is enthused about Derek's idea and has agreed to pay him for the services. During his visits, he will set up tablets and then show the seniors how to use them. Since he lives nearby, he will also provide support on an as-needed basis.

While he is excited about this opportunity, he is also trying to save up money for college. Although the retirement center will pay him for the workshops, he knows the investment in providing tablets will be expensive, and he wants to ensure he can cover his costs. A neighbor who works in banking suggests that Derek get a small loan to cover the costs of the tablets and use the income he earns to repay the loan. Derek is excited by the idea but is anxious when his neighbor mentions he will have to provide the bank monthly financial information, such as checking account and other financial statements. While he enjoys technology and helping others, he is unfamiliar with financial statements. Derek decides to learn more about how financial statements will help both him and the bank make sound financial decisions.

---

Source: https://openstax.org/books/principles-financial-accounting/pages/2-why-it-matters
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

1.1. Describe the Income Statement, Statement of Owner's Equity, Balance Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows, and How They Interrelate

The study of accounting requires an understanding of precise and sometimes complicated terminology, purposes, principles, concepts, and organizational and legal structures. Typically, your introductory accounting courses will familiarize you with the overall accounting environment, and for those of you who want greater detail, there is an assortment of more advanced accounting courses available.

This chapter concentrates on the four major types of financial statements and their interactions, the major types of business structures, and some of the major terms and concepts used in this course. Coverage here is somewhat basic since these topics are accorded much greater detail in future chapters.

Types of Business Structure

As you learned in Role of Accounting in Society, virtually every activity that occurs in a business has an associated cost or value. Part of an accountant's role is to quantify these activities, or transactions.

Also, in business-and accounting in particular-it is necessary to distinguish the business entity from the individual owner(s). The personal transactions of the owners, employees, and other parties connected to the business should not be recorded in the organization's records; this accounting principle is called the business entity concept. Accountants should record only business transactions in business records.

This separation is also reflected in the legal structure of the business. There are several common types of legal business structures. While the accounting concepts for the various types of businesses are essentially the same regardless of the legal structure, the terminology will change slightly depending on the organization's legal structure, and it is important to understand the differences.

There are three broad categories for the legal structure of an organization: sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. A sole proprietorship is a legal business structure consisting of a single individual. Benefits of this type of structure include ease of formation, favorable tax treatment, and a high level of control over the business. The risks involved with sole proprietorships include unlimited personal liability and a limited life for the business. Unless the business is sold, the business ends when the owner retires or passes away. In addition, sole proprietorships have a fairly limited ability to raise capital (funding), and often sole proprietors have limited expertise-they are excellent at what they do but may have limited expertise in other important areas of business, such as accounting or marketing.

A partnership is a legal business structure consisting of an association of two or more people who contribute money, property, or services to operate as co-owners of a business. Benefits of this type of structure include favorable tax treatment, ease of formation of the business, and better access to capital and expertise. The downsides to a partnership include unlimited personal liability (although there are other legal structures-a limited liability partnership, for example-to help mitigate the risk); limited life of the partnership, similar to sole proprietorships; and increased complexity to form the venture (decision-making authority, profit-sharing arrangement, and other important issues need to be formally articulated in a written partnership agreement).

A corporation is a legal business structure involving one or more individuals (owners) who are legally distinct (separate) from the business. A primary benefit of a corporate legal structure is the owners of the organization have limited liability. That is, a corporation is "stand alone," conducting business as an entity separate from its owners. Under the corporate structure, owners delegate to others (called agents) the responsibility to make day-to-day decisions regarding the operations of the business. Other benefits of the corporate legal structure include relatively easy access to large amounts of capital by obtaining loans or selling ownership (stock), and since the stock is easily sold or transferred to others, the business operates beyond the life of the shareholders. A major disadvantage of a corporate legal structure is double taxation-the business pays income tax and the owners are taxed when distributions (also called dividends) are received.

Types of Business Structures

	Sole Proprietorship	Partnership	Corporation
Number of Owners	Single individual	Two or more individuals	One or more owners
Ease of Formation	Easier to form	Harder to form	Difficult to form
Ability to Raise Capital	Difficult to raise capital	Harder to raise capital	Easier to raise capital
Liability Risk	Unlimited liability	Unlimited liability	Limited liability
Taxation Consideration	Single taxation	Single taxation	Double taxation

Table 2.1

The Four Financial Statements

Are you a fan of books, movies, or sports? If so, chances are you have heard or said the phrase "spoiler alert". It is used to forewarn readers, viewers, or fans that the ending of a movie or book or outcome of a game is about to be revealed. Some people prefer knowing the end and skipping all of the details in the middle, while others prefer to fully immerse themselves and then discover the outcome. People often do not know or understand what accountants produce or provide. That is, they are not familiar with the "ending" of the accounting process, but that is the best place to begin the study of accounting.

Accountants create what are known as financial statements. Financial statements are reports that communicate the financial performance and financial position of the organization.

In essence, the overall purpose of financial statements is to evaluate the performance of a company, governmental entity, or not-for-profit entity. This chapter illustrates this through a company, which is considered to be in business to generate a profit. Each financial statement we examine has a unique function, and together they provide information to determine whether a company generated a profit or loss for a given period (such as a month, quarter, or year); the assets, which are resources of the company, and accompanying liabilities, which are obligations of the company, that are used to generate the profit or loss; owner interest in profits or losses; and the cash position of the company at the end of the period.

The four financial statements that perform these functions and the order in which we prepare them are:

1. Income Statement
2. Statement of Owner's Equity
3. Balance Sheet
4. Statement of Cash Flows.

The order of preparation is important as it relates to the concept of how financial statements are interrelated. Before explaining each in detail, let's explore the purpose of each financial statement and its main components.

Continuing Application

Introduction to the Gearhead Outfitters Story

Gearhead Outfitters, founded by Ted Herget in 1997 in Jonesboro, Arkansas, is a retail chain that sells outdoor gear for men, women, and children. The company's inventory includes clothing, footwear for hiking and running, camping gear, backpacks, and accessories, by brands such as The North Face, Birkenstock, Wolverine, Yeti, Altra, Mizuno, and Patagonia. Herget fell in love with the outdoor lifestyle while working as a ski instructor in Colorado and wanted to bring that feeling back home to Arkansas. And so, Gearhead was born in a small downtown location in Jonesboro. The company has had great success over the years, expanding to numerous locations in Herget's home state, as well as Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Missouri.

While Herget knew his industry when starting Gearhead, like many entrepreneurs he faced regulatory and financial issues that were new to him. Several of these issues were related to accounting and the wealth of decision-making information that accounting systems provide.

For example, measuring revenue and expenses, providing information about cash flow to potential lenders, analyzing whether profit and positive cash flow is sustainable to allow for expansion, and managing inventory levels. Accounting, or the preparation of financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows), provides the mechanism for business owners such as Herget to make fundamentally sound business decisions.

Purpose of Financial Statements

Before exploring the specific financial statements, it is important to know why these are important documents. To understand this, you must first understand who the users of financial statements are. Users of the information found in financial statements are called stakeholders. A stakeholder is someone affected by decisions made by a company; this can include groups or individuals, comprised of investors, creditors, employees, managers, regulators, customers, and suppliers, who are affected by the actions or policies of an organization. The stakeholder's interest sometimes is not directly related to the entity's financial performance. Examples of stakeholders include lenders, investors/owners, vendors, employees and management, governmental agencies, and the communities in which the businesses operate. Stakeholders are interested in the performance of an organization for various reasons, but the common goal of using the financial statements is to understand the information each contains that is useful for making financial decisions. For example, a banker may be interested in the financial statements to decide whether or not to lend the organization money.

Likewise, small business owners may make decisions based on their familiarity with the business-they know if the business is doing well or not based on their "gut feeling". By preparing the financial statements, accountants can help owners by providing clarity of the organization's financial performance. It is important to understand that, in the long term, every activity of the business has a financial impact, and financial statements are a way that accountants report the activities of the business. Stakeholders must make many decisions, and the financial statements provide information that is helpful in the decision-making process.

As described in Role of Accounting in Society, the complete set of financial statements acts as an X-ray of a company's financial health. By evaluating all of the financial statements together, someone with financial knowledge can determine the overall health of a company. The accountant can use this information to advise outside (and inside) stakeholders on decisions, and management can use this information as one tool to make strategic short- and long-term decisions.

Ethical Considerations

Utilitarian View of Accounting Decisions and Stakeholder Well-Being

Utilitarianism is a well-known and influential moral theory commonly used as a framework to evaluate business decisions. Utilitarianism suggests that an ethical action is one whose consequence achieves the greatest good for the greatest number of people. So, if we want to make an ethical decision, we should ask ourselves who is helped and who is harmed by it. Focusing on consequences in this way generally does not require us to take into account the means of achieving that particular end, however. Put simply, the utilitarian view is an ethical theory that the best action of a company is the one that maximizes utility of all stakeholders to the decision. This view assumes that all individuals with an interest in the business are considered within the decision.

Financial statements are used to understand the financial performance of companies and to make long- and short-term decisions. A utilitarian approach considers all stakeholders, and both the long- and short-term effects of a business decision. This allows corporate decision makers to choose business actions with the potential to produce the best outcomes for the majority of all stakeholders, not just shareholders, and therefore maximize stakeholder happiness.

Accounting decisions can change the approach a stakeholder has in relation to a business. If a company focuses on modifying operations and financial reporting to maximize short-term shareholder value, this could indicate the prioritization of certain stakeholder interests above others. When a company pursues only short-term profit for shareholders, it neglects the well-being of other stakeholders. Professional accountants should be aware of the interdependent relationship between all stakeholders and consider whether the results of their decisions are good for the majority of stakeholder interests.

Your Turn

Business Owners as Decision Makers

Think of a business owner in your family or community. Schedule some time to talk with the business owner, and find out how he or she uses financial information to make decisions.

Solution

Business owners will use financial information for many decisions, such as comparing sales from one period to another, determining trends in costs and other expenses, and identifying areas in which to reduce or reallocate expenses. This information will be used to determine, for example, staffing and inventory levels, streamlining of operations, and advertising or other investment decisions.

The Income Statement

The first financial statement prepared is the income statement, a statement that shows the organization's financial performance for a given period of time. Let's illustrate the purpose of an income statement using a real-life example. Assume your friend, Chris, who is a sole proprietor, started a summer landscaping business on August 1, 2020. It is categorized as a service entity. To keep this example simple, assume that she is using her family's tractor, and we are using the cash basis method of accounting to demonstrate Chris's initial operations for her business. The other available basis method that is commonly used in accounting is the accrual basis method. She is responsible for paying for fuel and any maintenance costs. She named the business Chris' Landscaping. On August 31, Chris checked the account balance and noticed there is only $250 in the checking account. This balance is lower than expected because she thought she had been paid by some customers. Chris decides to do some research to determine why the balance in the checking account is lower than expected. Her research shows that she earned a total of $1,400 from her customers but had to pay $100 to fix the brakes on her tractor, $50 for fuel, and also made a $1,000 payment to the insurance company for business insurance. The reason for the lower-than-expected balance was due to the fact that she spent ($1,150 for brakes, fuel, and insurance) only slightly less than she earned ($1,400)-a net increase of $250. While she would like the checking balance to grow each month, she realizes most of the August expenses were infrequent (brakes and insurance) and the insurance, in particular, was an unusually large expense. She is convinced the checking account balance will likely grow more in September because she will earn money from some new customers; she also anticipates having fewer expenses.

 

The Income Statement can also be visualized by the formula: Revenue – Expenses = Net Income/(Loss).

Let's change this example slightly and assume the $1,000 payment to the insurance company will be paid in September, rather than in August. In this case, the ending balance in Chris's checking account would be $1,250, a result of earning $1,400 and only spending $100 for the brakes on her car and $50 for fuel. This stream of cash flows is an example of cash basis accounting because it reflects when payments are received and made, not necessarily the time period that they affect. At the end of this section and in The Adjustment Process you will address accrual accounting, which does reflect the time period that they affect.

In accounting, this example illustrates an income statement, a financial statement that is used to measure the financial performance of an organization for a particular period of time. We use the simple landscaping account example to discuss the elements of the income statement, which are revenues, expenses, gains, and losses. Together, these determine whether the organization has net income (where revenues and gains are greater than expenses and losses) or net loss (where expenses and losses are greater than revenues and gains). Revenues, expenses, gains, and losses are further defined here.

Revenue

Revenue is the value of goods and services the organization sold or provided to customers for a given period of time. In our current example, Chris's landscaping business, the "revenue" earned for the month of August would be $1,400. It is the value Chris received in exchange for the services provided to her clients. Likewise, when a business provides goods or services to customers for cash at the time of the service or in the future, the business classifies the amount(s) as revenue. Just as the $1,400 earned from a business made Chris's checking account balance increase, revenues increase the value of a business. In accounting, revenues are often also called sales or fees earned. Just as earning wages from a business or summer job reflects the number of hours worked for a given rate of pay or payments from clients for services rendered, revenues (and the other terms) are used to indicate the dollar value of goods and services provided to customers for a given period of time.

Your Turn

Coffee Shop Products

Think about the coffee shop in your area. Identify items the coffee shop sells that would be classified as revenues. Remember, revenues for the coffee shop are related to its primary purpose: selling coffee and related items. Or, better yet, make a trip to the local coffee shop and get a first-hand experience.

Solution

Many coffee shops earn revenue through multiple revenue streams, including coffee and other specialty drinks, food items, gift cards, and merchandise.

Expenses

An expense is a cost associated with providing goods or services to customers. In our opening example, the expenses that Chris incurred totaled $1,150 (consisting of $100 for brakes, $50 for fuel, and $1,000 for insurance). You might think of expenses as the opposite of revenue in that expenses reduce Chris's checking account balance. Likewise, expenses decrease the value of the business and represent the dollar value of costs incurred to provide goods and services to customers for a given period of time.

Your Turn

Coffee Shop Expenses

While thinking about or visiting the coffee shop in your area, look around (or visualize) and identify items or activities that are the expenses of the coffee shop. Remember, expenses for the coffee shop are related to resources consumed while generating revenue from selling coffee and related items. Do not forget about any expenses that might not be so obvious-as a general rule, every activity in a business has an associated cost.

Solution

Costs of the coffee shop that might be readily observed would include rent; wages for the employees; and the cost of the coffee, pastries, and other items/merchandise that may be sold. In addition, costs such as utilities, equipment, and cleaning or other supplies might also be readily observable. More obscure costs of the coffee shop would include insurance, regulatory costs such as health department licensing, point-of-sale/credit card costs, advertising, donations, and payroll costs such as workers' compensation, unemployment, and so on.

Gains

A gain can result from selling ancillary business items for more than the items are worth. (Ancillary business items are those that are used to support business operations.) To illustrate the concept of a gain, let's return to our example. However, this example and the accompanying losses example are not going to be part of our income statement, balance sheet, or owner's equity statement discussions. The gains and losses examples are only to be used in demonstrating the concepts of gains and losses. Assume that Chris paid $1,500 for a small piece of property to use for building a storage facility for her company. Further assume that Chris has an opportunity to sell the land for $2,000. She subsequently found a better storage option and decided to sell the property. After doing so, Chris will have a gain of $500 (a selling price of $2,000 and a cost of $1,500) and will also have $2,000 to deposit into her checking account, which would increase the balance.

Thinking back to the proceeds ($1,400) Chris received from her landscaping business, we might ask the question: how are gains similar to and different from revenues? The revenue of $1,400 that Chris earned from her business and the $2,000 she received from selling the land are similar in that both increase her checking account balance and make her business more valuable.

A difference, however, is evident if we consider how these funds were earned. Chris earned the $1,400 because she provided services (her labor) to her clients. Chris's primary objective is to earn revenue by working for her clients. In addition, earning money by selling her land was an infrequent event for Chris, since her primary job was serving as a landscaper. Her primary goal is to earn fees or revenue, not to earn money by selling land. In fact, she cannot consider doing that again because she does not have additional land to sell.

The primary goal of a business is to earn revenue by providing goods and services to customers in exchange for cash at that time or in the future. While selling other items for more than the value of the item does occur in business, these transactions are classified as gains, because these sales are infrequent and not the primary purpose of the business.

Losses

A loss results from selling ancillary business items for less than the items are worth. To illustrate, let's now assume that Chris sells her land that she purchased for $1,500 at a sales price of $1,200. In this case she would realize (incur) a loss of $300 on the sale of the property ($1,200 sales price minus the $1,500 cost of purchasing the property) and will also have $1,200 to deposit into her checking account, which would increase the balance.

You should not be confused by the fact that the checking account balance increased even though this transaction resulted in a financial loss. Chris received $1,200 that she can deposit into her checking account and use for future expenses. The $300 loss simply indicates that she received less for the land than she paid for it. These are two aspects of the same transaction that communicate different things, and it is important to understand the differences.

As we saw when comparing gains and revenues, losses are similar to expenses in that both losses and expenses decrease the value of the organization. In addition, just as Chris's primary goal is to earn money from her job rather than selling land, in business, losses refer to infrequent transactions involving ancillary items of the business.

Net Income (Net Loss)

Net income (net loss) is determined by comparing revenues and expenses. Net income is a result of revenues (inflows) being greater than expenses (outflows). A net loss occurs when expenses (outflows) are greater than revenues (inflows). In accounting it is common to present net income in the following format:

Recall that revenue is the value of goods and services a business provides to its customers and increase the value of the business. Expenses, on the other hand, are the costs of providing the goods and services and decrease the value of the business. When revenues exceed expenses, companies have net income. This means the business has been successful at earning revenues, containing expenses, or a combination of both. If, on the other hand, expenses exceed revenues, companies experience a net loss. This means the business was unsuccessful in earning adequate revenues, sufficiently containing expenses, or a combination of both. While businesses work hard to avoid net loss situations, it is not uncommon for a company to sustain a net loss from time-to-time. It is difficult, however, for businesses to remain viable while experiencing net losses over the long term.

Shown as a formula, the net income (loss) function is:

To be complete, we must also consider the impact of gains and losses. While gains and losses are infrequent in a business, it is not uncommon that a business would present a gain and/or loss in its financial statements. Recall that gains are similar to revenue and losses are similar to expenses. Therefore, the traditional accounting format would be:

Shown as a formula, the net income (loss) function, including gains and losses, is:

When assessing a company's net income, it is important to understand the source of the net income. Businesses strive to attain "high-quality" net income (earnings). High-quality earnings are based on sustainable earnings-also called permanent earnings-while relying less on infrequent earnings-also called temporary earnings. Recall that revenues represent the ongoing value of goods and services the business provides (sells) to its customers, while gains are infrequent and involve items ancillary to the primary purpose of the business. We should use caution if a business attains a significant portion of its net income as a result of gains, rather than revenues. Likewise, net losses derived as a result of losses should be put into the proper perspective due to the infrequent nature of losses. While net losses are undesirable for any reason, net losses that result from expenses related to ongoing operations, rather than losses that are infrequent, are more concerning for the business.

Statement of Owner's Equity

Equity is a term that is often confusing but is a concept with which you are probably already familiar. In short, equity is the value of an item that remains after considering what is owed for that item. The following example may help illustrate the concept of equity.

When thinking about the concept of equity, it is often helpful to think about an example many families are familiar with: purchasing a home. Suppose a family purchases a home worth $200,000. After making a down payment of $25,000, they secure a bank loan to pay the remaining $175,000. What is the value of the family's equity in the home? If you answered $25,000, you are correct. At the time of the purchase, the family owns a home worth $200,000 (an asset), but they owe $175,000 (a liability), so the equity or net worth in the home is $25,000.

The statement of owner's equity, which is the second financial statement created by accountants, is a statement that shows how the equity (or value) of the organization has changed over time. Similar to the income statement, the statement of owner's equity is for a specific period of time, typically one year. Recall that another way to think about equity is net worth, or value. So, the statement of owner's equity is a financial statement that shows how the net worth, or value, of the business has changed for a given period of time.

The elements of the financial statements shown on the statement of owner's equity include investments by owners as well as distributions to owners. Investments by owners and distributions to owners are two activities that impact the value of the organization (increase and decrease, respectively). In addition, net income or net loss affects the value of the organization (net income increases the value of the organization, and net loss decreases it). Net income (or net loss) is also shown on the statement of owner's equity; this is an example of how the statements are interrelated. Note that the word owner's (singular for a sole owner) changes to owners' (plural, for a group of owners) when preparing this statement for an entity with multiple owners versus a sole proprietorship.

In our example, to make it less complicated, we started with the first month of operations for Chris's Landscaping. In the first month of operations, the owner's equity total begins the month of August 2020, at $0, since there have been no transactions. During the month, the business received revenue of $1,400 and incurred expenses of $1,150, for net income of $250. Since Chris did not contribute any investment or make any withdrawals, other than the $1,150 for expenses, the ending balance in the owner's equity account on August 31, 2020, would be $250, the net income earned.

At this stage, it's important to point out that we are working with a sole proprietorship to help simplify the examples. We have addressed the owner's value in the firm as capital or owner's equity. However, later we switch the structure of the business to a corporation, and instead of owner's equity we begin using stockholder's equity, which includes account titles such as common stock and retained earnings to represent the owners' interests.

The corporate treatment is more complicated because corporations may have a few owners up to potentially thousands of owners (stockholders). More detail on this issue is provided in Define, Explain, and Provide Examples of Current and Noncurrent Assets, Current and Noncurrent Liabilities, Equity, Revenues, and Expenses.

Investments by Owners

Generally, there are two ways by which organizations become more valuable: profitable operations (when revenues exceed expenses) and investments by owners. Organizations often have long-term goals or projects that are very expensive (for example, building a new manufacturing facility or purchasing another company).

While having profitable operations is a viable way to "fund" these goals and projects, organizations often want to undertake these projects in a quicker time frame. Selling ownership is one way to quickly obtain the funding necessary for these goals. Investments by owners represent an exchange of cash or other assets for which the investor is given an ownership interest in the organization. This is a mutually beneficial arrangement: the organization gets the funding it needs on a timely basis, and the investor gets an ownership interest in the organization.

When organizations generate funding by selling ownership, the ownership interest usually takes the form of common stock, which is the corporation's primary class of stock issued, with each share representing a partial claim to ownership or a share of the company's business. When the organization issues common stock for the first time, it is called an initial public offering (IPO). In Corporation Accounting, you learn more about the specifics of this type of accounting. Once a company issues (or sells) common stock after an IPO, we describe the company as a publicly traded company, which simply means the company's stock can be purchased by the general public on a public exchange like the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). That is, investors can become owners of the particular company. Companies that issue publicly traded common shares in the United States are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a federal regulatory agency that, among other responsibilities, is charged with oversight of financial investments such as common stock.

Concepts In Practice

Roku Goes Public

On September 1, 2017, Roku, Inc.filed a Form S-1 with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). In this form, Roku disclosed its intention to become a publicly traded company, meaning its stock will trade (sell) on public stock exchanges, allowing individual and institutional investors an opportunity to own a portion (shares) of the company. The Form S-1 included detailed financial and nonfinancial information about the company. The information from Roku also included the purpose of the offering as well as the intended uses of the funds. Here is a portion of the disclosure: "The principal purposes of this offering are to increase our capitalization and financial flexibility and create a public market for our Class A common stock. We intend to use the net proceeds we receive from this offering primarily for general corporate purposes, including working capital . . . research and development, business development, sales and marketing activities and capital expenditures".

On September 28, 2017, Roku "went public" and exceeded expectations. Prior to the IPO, Roku estimated it would sell between $12 and $14 per share, raising over $117 million for the company. The closing price per share on September 28 was $23.50, nearly doubling initial expectations for the share value.

Distributions to Owners

There are basically two ways in which organizations become less valuable in terms of owners' equity: from unprofitable operations (when expenses or losses exceed revenues or gains) and by distributions to owners. Owners (investors) of an organization want to see their investment appreciate (gain) in value. Over time, owners of common stock can see the value of the stock increase in value-the share price increases-due to the success of the organization. Organizations may also make distributions to owners , which are periodic rewards issued to the owners in the form of cash or other assets. Distributions to owners represent some of the value (equity) of the organization.

For investors who hold common stock in the organization, these periodic payments or distributions to owners are called dividends. For sole proprietorships, distributions to owners are withdrawals or drawings. From the organization's perspective, dividends represent a portion of the net worth (equity) of the organization that is returned to owners as a reward for their investment. While issuing dividends does, in fact, reduce the organization's assets, some argue that paying dividends increases the organization's long-term value by making the stock more desirable. (Note that this topic falls under the category of "dividend policy" and there is a significant stream of research addressing this.)

Balance Sheet

Once the statement of owner's equity is completed, accountants typically complete the balance sheet, a statement that lists what the organization owns (assets), what it owes (liabilities), and what it is worth (equity) on a specific date. Notice the change in timing of the report. The income statement and statement of owner's equity report the financial performance and equity change for a period of time. The balance sheet, however, lists the financial position at the close of business on a specific date. (Refer to Figure 2.2 for the balance sheet as of August 31, 2020, for Chris' Landscaping.)

Figure 2.2 "Balance Sheet for Chris' Landscaping". (attribution: Copyright, Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)

Assets

If you recall our previous example involving Chris and her newly established landscaping business, you are probably already familiar with the term asset-these are resources used to generate revenue. In Chris's business, to keep the example relatively simple, the business ended the month with one asset, cash, assuming that the insurance was for one month's coverage.

However, as organizations become more complex, they often have dozens or more types of assets. An asset can be categorized as a short-term asset or current asset (which is typically used up, sold, or converted to cash in one year or less) or as a long-term asset or noncurrent asset (which is not expected to be converted into cash or used up within one year). Long-term assets are often used in the production of products and services.

Examples of short-term assets that businesses own include cash, accounts receivable, and inventory, while examples of long-term assets include land, machinery, office furniture, buildings, and vehicles. Several of the chapters that you will study are dedicated to an in-depth coverage of the special characteristics of selected assets. Examples include Merchandising Transactions, which are typically short term, and Long-Term Assets, which are typically long term.

An asset can also be categorized as a tangible asset or an intangible asset. Tangible assets have a physical nature, such as trucks or many inventory items, while intangible assets have value but often lack a physical existence or corpus, such as insurance policies or trademarks.

Liabilities

You are also probably already familiar with the term liability-these are amounts owed to others (called creditors). A liability can also be categorized as a short-term liability (or current liability) or a long-term liability (or noncurrent liability), similar to the treatment accorded assets. Short-term liabilities are typically expected to be paid within one year or less, while long-term liabilities are typically expected to be due for payment more than one year past the current balance sheet date.

Common short-term liabilities or amounts owed by businesses include amounts owed for items purchased on credit (also called accounts payable), taxes, wages, and other business costs that will be paid in the future. Long-term liabilities can include such liabilities as long-term notes payable, mortgages payable, or bonds payable.

Equity

In the Statement of Owner's Equity discussion, you learned that net assets refers to book value or net worth. In our example, Chris's Landscaping, we determined that Chris had $250 worth of equity in her company at the end of the first month (see Figure 2.2).

At any point in time it is important for stakeholders to know the financial position of a business. Stated differently, it is important for employees, managers, and other interested parties to understand what a business owns, owes, and is worth at any given point. This provides stakeholders with valuable financial information to make decisions related to the business.

Statement of Cash Flows

The fourth and final financial statement prepared is the statement of cash flows, which is a statement that lists the cash inflows and cash outflows for the business for a period of time. At first glance, this may seem like a redundant financial statement. We know the income statement also reports the inflows and outflows for the business for a period of time. In addition, the statement of owner's equity and the balance sheet help to show the other activities, such as investments by and distributions to owners that are not included in the income statement. To understand why the statement of cash flows is necessary, we must first understand the two bases of accounting used to prepare the financial statements. The changes in cash within this statement are often referred to as sources and uses of cash. A source of cash lets one see where cash is coming from. For example, is cash being generated from sales to customers, or is the cash a result of an advance in a large loan. Use of cash looks at what cash is being used for. Is cash being used to make an interest payment on a loan, or is cash being used to purchase a large piece of machinery that will expand business capacity? The two bases of accounting are the cash basis and the accrual basis, briefly introduced in Describe the Income Statement, Statement of Owner's Equity, Balance Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows, and How They Interrelate.

Under cash basis accounting, transactions (i.e., a sale or a purchase) are not recorded in the financial statements until there is an exchange of cash. This type of accounting is permitted for nonprofit entities and small businesses that elect to use this type of accounting. Under accrual basis accounting, transactions are generally recorded in the financial statement when the transactions occur, and not when paid, although in some situations the two events could happen on the same day.

An example of the two methods (cash versus accrual accounting) would probably help clarify their differences. Assume that a mechanic performs a tune-up on a client's car on May 29, and the customer picks up her car and pays the mechanic $100 on June 2. If the mechanic were using the cash method, the revenue would be recognized on June 2, the date of payment, and any expenses would be recognized when paid.

If the accrual method were used, the mechanic would recognize the revenue and any related expenses on May 29, the day the work was completed. The accrual method will be the basis for your studies here (except for our coverage of the cash flow statement in Statement of Cash Flows). The accrual method is also discussed in greater detail in Explain the Steps within the Accounting Cycle through the Unadjusted Trial Balance.

While the cash basis of accounting is suited well and is more efficient for small businesses and certain types of businesses, such as farming, and those without inventory, like lawyers and doctors, the accrual basis of accounting is theoretically preferable to the cash basis of accounting. Accrual accounting is advantageous because it distinguishes between the timing of the transactions (when goods and services are provided) and when the cash involved in the transactions is exchanged (which can be a significant amount of time after the initial transaction). This allows accountants to provide, in a timely manner, relevant and complete information to stakeholders. The Adjustment Process explores several common techniques involved in accrual accounting.

Two brief examples may help illustrate the difference between cash accounting and accrual accounting. Assume that a business sells $200 worth of merchandise. In some businesses, there are two ways the customers pay: cash and credit (also referred to as "on account"). Cash sales include checks and credit cards and are paid at the time of the sale. Credit sales (not to be confused with credit card sales) allow the customer to take the merchandise but pay within a specified period of time, usually up to forty-five days.

A cash sale would be recorded in the financial statements under both the cash basis and accrual basis of accounting. It makes sense because the customer received the merchandise and paid the business at the same time. It is considered two events that occur simultaneously (exchange of merchandise for cash).

Similar to the previous example for the mechanic, a credit sale, however, would be treated differently under each of these types of accounting. Under the cash basis of accounting, a credit sale would not be recorded in the financial statements until the cash is received, under terms stipulated by the seller. For example, assume on April 1 a landscaping business provides $500 worth of services to one of its customers. The sale is made on account, with the payment due forty-five days later. Under the cash basis of accounting, the revenue would not be recorded until May 16, when the cash was received. Under the accrual basis of accounting, this sale would be recorded in the financial statements at the time the services were provided, April 1. The reason the sale would be recorded is, under accrual accounting, the business reports that it provided $500 worth of services to its customer. The fact the customers will pay later is viewed as a separate transaction under accrual accounting (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Credit versus Cash. On the left is a credit sale recorded under the cash basis of accounting. On the right the same credit sale is recorded under the accrual basis of accounting. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)

Let's now explore the difference between the cash basis and accrual basis of accounting using an expense. Assume a business purchases $160 worth of printing supplies from a supplier (vendor). Similar to a sale, a purchase of merchandise can be paid for at the time of sale using cash (also a check or credit card) or at a later date (on account). A purchase paid with cash at the time of the sale would be recorded in the financial statements under both cash basis and accrual basis of accounting. It makes sense because the business received the printing supplies from the supplier and paid the supplier at the same time. It is considered two events that occur simultaneously (exchange of merchandise for cash).

If the purchase was made on account (also called a credit purchase), however, the transaction would be recorded differently under each of these types of accounting. Under the cash basis of accounting, the $160 purchase on account would not be recorded in the financial statements until the cash is paid, as stipulated by the seller's terms. For example, if the printing supplies were received on July 17 and the payment terms were fifteen days, no transaction would be recorded until August 1, when the goods were paid for. Under the accrual basis of accounting, this purchase would be recorded in the financial statements at the time the business received the printing supplies from the supplier (July 17). The reason the purchase would be recorded is that the business reports that it bought $160 worth of printing supplies from its vendors. The fact the business will pay later is viewed as a separate issue under accrual accounting. Table 2.2 summarizes these examples under the different bases of accounting.

1.2. Prepare an Income Statement, Statement of Owner's Equity, and Balance Sheet

One of the key factors for success for those beginning the study of accounting is to understand how the elements of the financial statements relate to each of the financial statements. That is, once the transactions are categorized into the elements, knowing what to do next is vital. This is the beginning of the process to create the financial statements. It is important to note that financial statements are discussed in the order in which the statements are presented.

Elements of the Financial Statements

When thinking of the relationship between the elements and the financial statements, we might think of a baking analogy: the elements represent the ingredients, and the financial statements represent the finished product. As with baking a cake (see Figure 2.5), knowing the ingredients (elements) and how each ingredient relates to the final product (financial statements) is vital to the study of accounting.

Figure 2.5 Baking requires an understanding of the different ingredients, how the ingredients are used, and how the ingredients will impact the final product (a). If used correctly, the final product will be beautiful and, more importantly, delicious, like the cake shown in (b). In a similar manner, the study of accounting requires an understanding of how the accounting elements relate to the final product-the financial statements.

To help accountants prepare and users better understand financial statements, the profession has outlined what is referred to as elements of the financial statements, which are those categories or accounts that accountants use to record transactions and prepare financial statements. There are ten elements of the financial statements, and we have already discussed most of them.

• Revenue- value of goods and services the organization sold or provided.
• Expenses- costs of providing the goods or services for which the organization earns revenue.
• Gains- gains are similar to revenue but relate to "incidental or peripheral" activities of the organization.
• Losses- losses are similar to expenses but related to "incidental or peripheral" activities of the organization.
• Assets- items the organization owns, controls, or has a claim to.
• Liabilities- amounts the organization owes to others (also called creditors).
• Equity- the net worth (or net assets) of the organization.
• Investment by owners- cash or other assets provided to the organization in exchange for an ownership interest.
• Distribution to owners- cash, other assets, or ownership interest (equity) provided to owners.
• Comprehensive income- defined as the "change in equity of a business enterprise during a period from transactions and other events and circumstances from nonowner sources" (SFAC No. 6, p. 21). While further discussion of comprehensive income is reserved for intermediate and advanced studies in accounting, it is worth noting that comprehensive income has four components, focusing on activities related to foreign currency, derivatives, investments, and pensions.

Financial Statements for a Sample Company

Now it is time to bake the cake (i.e., prepare the financial statements). We have all of the ingredients (elements of the financial statements) ready, so let's now return to the financial statements themselves. Let's use as an example a fictitious company named Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. This company is a small retail store that makes and sells a variety of gourmet popcorn treats. It is an exciting time because the store opened in the current month, June.

Assume that as part of your summer job with Cheesy Chuck's, the owner-you guessed it, Chuck-has asked you to take over for a former employee who graduated college and will be taking an accounting job in New York City. In addition to your duties involving making and selling popcorn at Cheesy Chuck's, part of your responsibility will be doing the accounting for the business. The owner, Chuck, heard that you are studying accounting and could really use the help, because he spends most of his time developing new popcorn flavors.

The former employee has done a nice job of keeping track of the accounting records, so you can focus on your first task of creating the June financial statements, which Chuck is eager to see. Figure 2.6 shows the financial information (as of June 30) for Cheesy Chuck's.

Figure 2.6 Trial Balance for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. Accountants record and summarize accounting information into accounts, which help to track, summarize, and prepare accounting information. This table is a variation of what accountants call a "trial balance". A trial balance is a summary of accounts and aids accountants in creating financial statements.

We should note that we are oversimplifying some of the things in this example. First, the amounts in the accounting records were given. We did not explain how the amounts would be derived. This process is explained starting in Analyzing and Recording Transactions. Second, we are ignoring the timing of certain cash flows such as hiring, purchases, and other startup costs. In reality, businesses must invest cash to prepare the store, train employees, and obtain the equipment and inventory necessary to open. These costs will precede the selling of goods and services. In the example to follow, for instance, we use Lease payments of $24,000, which represents lease payments for the building ($20,000) and equipment ($4,000). In practice, when companies lease items, the accountants must determine, based on accounting rules, whether or not the business "owns" the item. If it is determined the business "owns" the building or equipment, the item is listed on the balance sheet at the original cost. Accountants also take into account the building or equipment's value when the item is worn out. The difference in these two values (the original cost and the ending value) will be allocated over a relevant period of time. As an example, assume a business purchased equipment for $18,000 and the equipment will be worth $2,000 after four years, giving an estimated decline in value (due to usage) of $16,000 ($18,000 − $2,000). The business will allocate $4,000 of the equipment cost over each of the four years ($18,000 minus $2,000 over four years). This is called depreciation and is one of the topics that is covered in Long-Term Assets.

Also, the Equipment with a value of $12,500 in the financial information provided was purchased at the end of the first accounting period. It is an asset that will be depreciated in the future, but no depreciation expense is allocated in our example.

Income Statement

Let's prepare the income statement so we can inform how Cheesy Chuck's performed for the month of June (remember, an income statement is for a period of time). Our first step is to determine the value of goods and services that the organization sold or provided for a given period of time. These are the inflows to the business, and because the inflows relate to the primary purpose of the business (making and selling popcorn), we classify those items as Revenues, Sales, or Fees Earned. For this example, we use Revenue. The revenue for Cheesy Chuck's for the month of June is $85,000.

Next, we need to show the total expenses for Cheesy Chuck's. Because Cheesy Chuck's tracks different types of expenses, we need to add the amounts to calculate total expenses. If you added correctly, you get total expenses for the month of June of $79,200. The final step to create the income statement is to determine the amount of net income or net loss for Cheesy Chuck's. Since revenues ($85,000) are greater than expenses ($79,200), Cheesy Chuck's has a net income of $5,800 for the month of June.

Figure 2.7 displays the June income statement for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn.

Figure 2.7 Income Statement for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The income statement for Cheesy Chuck's shows the business had Net Income of $5,800 for the month ended June 30. This amount will be used to prepare the next financial statement, the statement of owner's equity.

Financial statements are created using numerous standard conventions or practices. The standard conventions provide consistency and help assure financial statement users the information is presented in a similar manner, regardless of the organization issuing the financial statement. Let's look at the standard conventions shown in the Cheesy Chuck's income statement:

• The heading of the income statement includes three lines.
• The first line lists the business name.
• The middle line indicates the financial statement that is being presented.
• The last line indicates the time frame of the financial statement. Do not forget the income statement is for a period of time (the month of June in our example).
• There are three columns.
• Going from left to right, the first column is the category heading or account.
• The second column is used when there are numerous accounts in a particular category (Expenses, in our example).
• The third column is a total column. In this illustration, it is the column where subtotals are listed and net income is determined (subtracting Expenses from Revenues).
• Subtotals are indicated by a single underline, while totals are indicated by a double underline. Notice the amount of Miscellaneous Expense ($300) is formatted with a single underline to indicate that a subtotal will follow. Similarly, the amount of "Net Income" ($5,800) is formatted with a double underline to indicate that it is the final value/total of the financial statement.
• There are no gains or losses for Cheesy Chuck's. Gains and losses are not unusual transactions for businesses, but gains and losses may be infrequent for some, especially small, businesses.

Concepts In Practice

McDonald's

For the year ended December 31, 2016, McDonald's had sales of $24.6 billion. The amount of sales is often used by the business as the starting point for planning the next year. No doubt, there are a lot of people involved in the planning for a business the size of McDonald's. Two key people at McDonald's are the purchasing manager and the sales manager (although they might have different titles). Let's look at how McDonald's 2016 sales amount might be used by each of these individuals. In each case, do not forget that McDonald's is a global company.

A purchasing manager at McDonald's, for example, is responsible for finding suppliers, negotiating costs, arranging for delivery, and many other functions necessary to have the ingredients ready for the stores to prepare the food for their customers. Expecting that McDonald's will have over $24 billion of sales during 2017, how many eggs do you think the purchasing manager at McDonald's would need to purchase for the year? According to the McDonald's website, the company uses over two billion eggs a year. Take a moment to list the details that would have to be coordinated in order to purchase and deliver over two billion eggs to the many McDonald's restaurants around the world.

A sales manager is responsible for establishing and attaining sales goals within the company. Assume that McDonald's 2017 sales are expected to exceed the amount of sales in 2016. What conclusions would you make based on this information? What do you think might be influencing these amounts? What factors do you think would be important to the sales manager in deciding what action, if any, to take? Now assume that McDonald's 2017 sales are expected to be below the 2016 sales level. What conclusions would you make based on this information? What do you think might be influencing these amounts? What factors do you think would be important to the sales manager in deciding what action, if any, to take?

Statement of Owner's Equity

Let's create the statement of owner's equity for Cheesy Chuck's for the month of June. Since Cheesy Chuck's is a brand-new business, there is no beginning balance of Owner's Equity. The first items to account for are the increases in value/equity, which are investments by owners and net income. As you look at the accounting information you were provided, you recognize the amount invested by the owner, Chuck, was $12,500. Next, we account for the increase in value as a result of net income, which was determined in the income statement to be $5,800. Next, we determine if there were any activities that decreased the value of the business. More specifically, we are accounting for the value of distributions to the owners and net loss, if any.

It is important to note that an organization will have either net income or net loss for the period, but not both. Also, small businesses in particular may have periods where there are no investments by, or distributions to, the owner(s). For the month of June, Chuck withdrew $1,450 from the business. This is a good time to recall the terminology used by accountants based on the legal structure of the particular business. Since the account was titled "Drawings by Owner" and because Chuck is the only owner, we can assume this is a sole proprietorship. If the business was structured as a corporation, this activity would be called something like "Dividends Paid to Owners".

At this stage, remember that since we are working with a sole proprietorship to help simplify the examples, we have addressed the owner's value in the firm as capital or owner's equity. However, later we switch the structure of the business to a corporation, and instead of owner's equity, we begin using such account titles as common stock and retained earnings to represent the owner's interests. The corporate treatment is more complicated, because corporations may have a few owners up to potentially thousands of owners (stockholders). The details of accounting for the interests of corporations are covered in Corporation Accounting.

So how much did the value of Cheesy Chuck's change during the month of June? You are correct if you answered $16,850. Since this is a brand-new store, the beginning value of the business is zero. During the month, the owner invested $12,500 and the business had profitable operations (net income) of $5,800. Also, during the month the owner withdrew $1,450, resulting in a net change (and ending balance) to owner's equity of $16,850. Shown in a formula:

Beginning Balance + Investments by Owners ± Net Income (Net Loss) – Distributions, or

$$0 + $12,500 + $5,800 – $1,450 = $16,850$

Figure 2.8 shows what the statement of owner's equity for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn would look like.

Figure 2.8 Statement of Owner's Equity for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The statement of owner's equity demonstrates how the net worth (also called equity) of the business changed over the period of time (the month of June in this case). Notice the amount of net income (or net loss) is brought from the income statement. In a similar manner, the ending equity balance (Capital for Cheesy Chuck's because it is a sole proprietorship) is carried forward to the balance sheet.

Notice the following about the statement of owner's equity for Cheesy Chuck's:

• The format is similar to the format of the income statement (three lines for the heading, three columns).
• The statement follows a chronological order, starting with the first day of the month, accounting for the changes that occurred throughout the month, and ending with the final day of the month.

The statement uses the final number from the financial statement previously completed. In this case, the statement of owner's equity uses the net income (or net loss) amount from the income statement (Net Income, $5,800).

Balance Sheet

Let's create a balance sheet for Cheesy Chuck's for June 30. To begin, we look at the accounting records and determine what assets the business owns and the value of each. Cheesy Chuck's has two assets: Cash ($6,200) and Equipment ($12,500). Adding the amount of assets gives a total asset value of $18,700. As discussed previously, the equipment that was recently purchased will be depreciated in the future, beginning with the next accounting period.

Next, we determine the amount of money that Cheesy Chuck's owes (liabilities). There are also two liabilities for Cheesy Chuck's. The first account listed in the records is Accounts Payable for $650. Accounts Payable is the amount that Cheesy Chuck's must pay in the future to vendors (also called suppliers) for the ingredients to make the gourmet popcorn. The other liability is Wages Payable for $1,200. This is the amount that Cheesy Chuck's must pay in the future to employees for work that has been performed. Adding the two amounts gives us total liabilities of $1,850. (Here's a hint as you develop your understanding of accounting: Liabilities often include the word "payable". So, when you see "payable" in the account title, know these are amounts owed in the future-liabilities.)

Finally, we determine the amount of equity the owner, Cheesy Chuck, has in the business. The amount of owner's equity was determined on the statement of owner's equity in the previous step ($16,850). Can you think of another way to confirm the amount of the owner's equity? Recall that equity is also called net assets (assets minus liabilities). If you take the total assets of Cheesy Chuck's of $18,700 and subtract the total liabilities of $1,850, you get owner's equity of $16,850. Using the basic accounting equation, the balance sheet for Cheesy Chuck's as of June 30 is shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Balance Sheet for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The balance sheet shows what the business owns (Assets), owes (Liabilities), and is worth (equity) on a given date. Notice the amount of Owner's Equity (Capital for Cheesy Chuck's) was brought forward from the statement of owner's equity.

Connecting the Income Statement and the Balance Sheet

Another way to think of the connection between the income statement and balance sheet (which is aided by the statement of owner's equity) is by using a sports analogy. The income statement summarizes the financial performance of the business for a given period of time. The income statement reports how the business performed financially each month-the firm earned either net income or net loss. This is similar to the outcome of a particular game-the team either won or lost.

The balance sheet summarizes the financial position of the business on a given date. Meaning, because of the financial performance over the past twelve months, for example, this is the financial position of the business as of December 31. Think of the balance sheet as being similar to a team's overall win/loss record-to a certain extent a team's strength can be perceived by its win/loss record.

However, because different companies have different sizes, you do not necessarily want to compare the balance sheets of two different companies. For example, you would not want to compare a local retail store with Walmart. In most cases you want to compare a company with its past balance sheet information.

Statement of Cash Flows

In Describe the Income Statement, Statement of Owner's Equity, Balance Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows, and How They Interrelate, we discussed the function of and the basic characteristics of the statement of cash flows. This fourth and final financial statement lists the cash inflows and cash outflows for the business for a period of time. It was created to fill in some informational gaps that existed in the other three statements (income statement, owner's equity/retained earnings statement, and the balance sheet). A full demonstration of the creation of the statement of cash flows is presented in Statement of Cash Flows.

Creating Financial Statements: A Summary

In this example using a fictitious company, Cheesy Chuck's, we began with the account balances and demonstrated how to prepare the financial statements for the month of June, the first month of operations for the business. It will be helpful to revisit the process by summarizing the information we started with and how that information was used to create the four financial statements: income statement, statement of owner's equity, balance sheet, and statement of cash flows.

We started with the account balances shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10 Account Balances for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. Obtaining the account balances is the starting point for preparing financial statements.

The next step was to create the income statement, which shows the financial performance of the business. The income statement is shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11 Income Statement for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The income statement uses information from the trial balance, which lists the accounts and account totals. The income statement shows the financial performance of a business for a period of time. The net income or net loss will be carried forward to the statement of owner's equity.

Next, we created the statement of owner's equity, shown in Figure 2.12. The statement of owner's equity demonstrates how the equity (or net worth) of the business changed for the month of June. Do not forget that the Net Income (or Net Loss) is carried forward to the statement of owner's equity.

Figure 2.12 Statement of Owner's Equity for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The statement of owner's equity shows how the net worth/value (or equity) of business changed for the period of time. This statement includes Net Income (or Net Loss), which was brought forward from the income statement. The ending balance is carried forward to the balance sheet.

The third financial statement created is the balance sheet, which shows the company's financial position on a given date. Cheesy Chuck's balance sheet is shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Balance Sheet for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The balance sheet shows the assets, liabilities, and owner's equity of a business on a given date. Notice the balance sheet is the accounting equation in financial statement form: Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity.

Think It Through

Financial Statement Analysis

In Why It Matters, we pointed out that accounting information from the financial statements can be useful to business owners. The financial statements provide feedback to the owners regarding the financial performance and financial position of the business, helping the owners to make decisions about the business.

Using the June financial statements, analyze Cheesy Chuck's and prepare a brief presentation. Consider this from the perspective of the owner, Chuck. Describe the financial performance of and financial position of the business. What areas of the business would you want to analyze further to get additional information? What changes would you consider making to the business, if any, and why or why not?

Ethical Considerations

Financial Statement Manipulation at Waste Management Inc.

Accountants have an ethical duty to accurately report the financial results of their company and to ensure that the company's annual reports communicate relevant information to stakeholders. If accountants and company management fail to do so, they may incur heavy penalties.

For example, in 2002 the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charged the top management of Waste Management, Inc. with inflating profits by $1.7 billion to meet earnings targets in the period 1992–1997. An SEC press release alleged "that defendants fraudulently manipulated the company's financial results to meet predetermined earnings targets. . . . They employed a multitude of improper accounting practices to achieve this objective". The defendants in the case manipulated reports to defer or eliminate expenses, which fraudulently inflated their earnings. Because they failed to accurately report the financial results of their company, the top accountants and management of Waste Management, Inc. face charges.

Thomas C. Newkirk, the associate director of the SEC's Division of Enforcement, stated, "For years, these defendants cooked the books, enriched themselves, preserved their jobs, and duped unsuspecting shareholders" The defendants, who included members of the company board and executives, benefited personally from their fraud in the millions of dollars through performance-based bonuses, charitable giving, and sale of company stock. The company's accounting form, Arthur Andersen, abetted the fraud by identifying the improper practices but doing little to stop them.

Liquidity Ratios

In addition to reviewing the financial statements in order to make decisions, owners and other stakeholders may also utilize financial ratios to assess the financial health of the organization. While a more in-depth discussion of financial ratios occurs in Appendix A: Financial Statement Analysis, here we introduce liquidity ratios, a common, easy, and useful way to analyze the financial statements.

Liquidity refers to the business's ability to convert assets into cash in order to meet short-term cash needs. Examples of the most liquid assets include accounts receivable and inventory for merchandising or manufacturing businesses. The reason these are among the most liquid assets is that these assets will be turned into cash more quickly than land or buildings, for example. Accounts receivable represents goods or services that have already been sold and will typically be paid/collected within thirty to forty-five days. Inventory is less liquid than accounts receivable because the product must first be sold before it generates cash (either through a cash sale or sale on account). Inventory is, however, more liquid than land or buildings because, under most circumstances, it is easier and quicker for a business to find someone to purchase its goods than it is to find a buyer for land or buildings.

Working Capital

The starting point for understanding liquidity ratios is to define working capital-current assets minus current liabilities. Recall that current assets and current liabilities are amounts generally settled in one year or less. Working capital (current assets minus current liabilities) is used to assess the dollar amount of assets a business has available to meet its short-term liabilities. A positive working capital amount is desirable and indicates the business has sufficient current assets to meet short-term obligations (liabilities) and still has financial flexibility. A negative amount is undesirable and indicates the business should pay particular attention to the composition of the current assets (that is, how liquid the current assets are) and to the timing of the current liabilities. It is unlikely that all of the current liabilities will be due at the same time, but the amount of working capital gives stakeholders of both small and large businesses an indication of the firm's ability to meet its short-term obligations.

One limitation of working capital is that it is a dollar amount, which can be misleading because business sizes vary. Recall from the discussion on materiality that $1,000, for example, is more material to a small business (like an independent local movie theater) than it is to a large business (like a movie theater chain). Using percentages or ratios allows financial statement users to more easily compare small and large businesses.

Current Ratio

The current ratio is closely related to working capital; it represents the current assets divided by current liabilities. The current ratio utilizes the same amounts as working capital (current assets and current liabilities) but presents the amount in ratio, rather than dollar, form. That is, the current ratio is defined as current assets/current liabilities. The interpretation of the current ratio is similar to working capital. A ratio of greater than one indicates that the firm has the ability to meet short-term obligations with a buffer, while a ratio of less than one indicates that the firm should pay close attention to the composition of its current assets as well as the timing of the current liabilities.

Sample Working Capital and Current Ratio Calculations

Assume that Chuck, the owner of Cheesy Chuck's, wants to assess the liquidity of the business. Figure 2.14 shows the June 30, 2018, balance sheet. Assume the Equipment listed on the balance sheet is a noncurrent asset. This is a reasonable assumption as this is the first month of operation and the equipment is expected to last several years. We also assume the Accounts Payable and Wages Payable will be paid within one year and are, therefore, classified as current liabilities.

Figure 2.14 Balance Sheet for Cheesy Chuck's Classic Corn. The balance sheet provides a snapshot of the company's financial position. By showing the total assets, total liabilities, and total equity of the business, the balance sheet provides information that is useful for decision-making. In addition, using ratios can give stakeholders another view of the company, allowing for comparisons to prior periods and to other businesses.

Working capital is calculated as current assets minus current liabilities. Cheesy Chuck's has only two assets, and one of the assets, Equipment, is a noncurrent asset, so the value of current assets is the cash amount of $6,200. The working capital of Cheesy Chuck's is $6,200 – $1,850 or $4,350. Since this amount is over $0 (it is well over $0 in this case), Chuck is confident he has nothing to worry about regarding the liquidity of his business.

Let's further assume that Chuck, while attending a popcorn conference for store owners, has a conversation with the owner of a much larger popcorn store-Captain Caramel's. The owner of Captain Caramel's happens to share the working capital for his store is $52,500. At first Chuck feels his business is not doing so well. But then he realizes that Captain Caramel's is located in a much bigger city (with more customers) and has been around for many years, which has allowed them to build a solid business, which Chuck aspires to do. How would Chuck compare the liquidity of his new business, opened just one month, with the liquidity of a larger and more-established business in another market? The answer is by calculating the current ratio, which removes the size differences (materiality) of the two businesses.

The current ratio is calculated as current assets/current liabilities. We use the same amounts that we used in the working capital calculation, but this time we divide the amounts rather than subtract the amounts. So Cheesy Chuck's current ratio is $6,200 (current assets)/$1,850 (current liabilities), or 3.35. This means that for every dollar of current liabilities, Cheesy Chuck's has $3.35 of current assets. Chuck is pleased with the ratio but does not know how this compares to another popcorn store, so he asked his new friend from Captain Caramel's. The owner of Captain Caramel's shares that his store has a current ratio of 4.25. While it is still better than Cheesy Chuck's, Chuck is encouraged to learn that his store is performing at a more competitive level than he previously thought by comparing the dollar amounts of working capital.

IFRS Connection

IFRS and US GAAP in Financial Statements

Understanding the elements that make up financial statements, the organization of those elements within the financial statements, and what information each statement relays is important, whether analyzing the financial statements of a US company or one from Honduras. Since most US companies apply generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) as prescribed by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), and most international companies apply some version of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), knowing how these two sets of accounting standards are similar or different regarding the elements of the financial statements will facilitate analysis and decision-making.

Both IFRS and US GAAP have the same elements as components of financial statements: assets, liabilities, equity, income, and expenses. Equity, income, and expenses have similar subcategorization between the two types of GAAP (US GAAP and IFRS) as described. For example, income can be in the form of earned income (a lawyer providing legal services) or in the form of gains (interest earned on an investment account). The definition of each of these elements is similar between IFRS and US GAAP, but there are some differences that can influence the value of the account or the placement of the account on the financial statements. Many of these differences are discussed in detail later in this course when that element-for example, the nuances of accounting for liabilities-is discussed. Here is an example to illustrate how these minor differences in definition can impact placement within the financial statements when using US GAAP versus IFRS. ACME Car Rental Company typically rents its cars for a time of two years or 60,000 miles. At the end of whichever of these two measures occurs first, the cars are sold. Under both US GAAP and IFRS, the cars are noncurrent assets during the period when they are rented. Once the cars are being "held for sale," under IFRS rules, the cars become current assets. However, under US GAAP, there is no specific rule as to where to list those "held for sale" cars; thus, they could still list the cars as noncurrent assets. As you learn more about the analysis of companies and financial information, this difference in placement on the financial statements will become more meaningful. At this point, simply know that financial analysis can include ratios, which is the comparison of two numbers, and thus any time you change the denominator or the numerator, the ratio result will change.

There are many similarities and some differences in the actual presentation of the various financial statements, but these are discussed in The Adjustment Process at which point these similarities and differences will be more meaningful and easier to follow.