PHIL103 Study Guide

Unit 1: Murder, Morality, and the Value of Human Life

1a. Define ethics and moral philosophy

  • What are ethics and moral philosophy?
  • What are the differences between normative ethics, metaethics, and applied ethics?
  • What are virtue ethics, social contract theory, deontology, and utilitarianism?
  • What are the components of an ethical dilemma?

The word ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom or habit. Ethics describes the branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality, which is derived from the Latin word moralis, meaning custom. Many use ethics synonymously with morality, values, and moral philosophy.

The study of ethics reflects a systematic examination of our attitudes and beliefs about how people should treat others and act as members of their community. Today's philosophers and scholars continue to debate many of the same questions that preoccupied ancient ethical thinkers. Philosophers often incorporate the study of ethics within larger philosophical systems that include theories of knowledge, reality, aesthetics (the branch of philosophy that relates to the principles of beauty and art), and politics.

Prescriptive or normative ethics tell us how to act and be. This type of ethical reasoning is prescriptive and practical. It provides practical guides or norms by means of which we know how to act; it tells us what is right and wrong. Ethics is a prescriptive study insofar as we don't just do it as a matter of course. If we did, we wouldn't ask what we ought or should do. Normative questions include: "Is it ever ethical for me to lie?" and, "Do I have a duty to help the poor and those less fortunate than me?"

Metaethics is the study of morality and moral judgments. Metaethicists use descriptive and theoretical approaches to understanding the commitments and assumptions that underlie our thinking about morality and moral actions. In short, metaethics is concerned with uncovering the origin and nature of moral principles, moral attitudes, moral judgments, and moral properties. That is, metaethics is concerned with what it means to say that we should or ought to act the way a normative theory tells us we should.

Applied ethics examines controversial issues. For example, applied ethics applies normative and metaethical concepts to issues such as abortion, infanticide, euthanasia, stem-cell research, environmental issues, capital punishment, same-sex marriage, drug legalization, discrimination, and specific rights, such as animal rights.

Note that we will discuss different theories about ethics in the study guide that follows, including virtue ethics, social contract theory, deontology, and utilitarianism.

To review, see Ethical Systems.

 

1b. Apply a definition of ethics to moral and political concepts such as justice and others

  • How did Plato and Thomas Hobbes define justice?
  • What is social contract theory?
  • Is justice a political or moral concept, or both?
  • Does absolute justice exist, or does the state determine justice through the laws its passes?
  • How does Martin Luther King, Jr. define justice?
  • Is there an absolute justice or a natural law, which protects certain inherent rights of people?
  • What is necessity?
  • What is the difference between something we need and something we want?
  • Does necessity or need change our ethical principles when we make decisions? For example, is it okay to do things we need to survive that we might not otherwise consider morally or ethically permissible?

Philosophers define ethical concepts, such as justice, differently. For example, Plato (c. 423–348 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC), the Greek philosophers, defined justice as following the laws of the state, provided the city is structured in a way that creates "just" laws.

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1689), the English philosopher who wrote about social contract theory, defined justice as acting in a way that is within your power. Hobbes claimed that political leaders get to define what justice means, as long as they are strong or powerful enough to get away with it.

Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968), was an American Baptist minister and political activist, who promoted equal rights for African Americans during the civil rights movement from 1954 to 1968. He was assassinated in 1968 and is remembered for his ability to mobilize the American people to support civil rights, powerful speeches, and actions in favor of rights for all races. Martin Luther King, Jr. advocated for change in peaceful, non-violent ways. One of his most influential writings is his Letter from the Birmingham City Jail.

Michael Sandel discusses how the shipmates Dudley and Stephens raised questions about whether it is ethical to change our moral principles or norms in cases of extreme need or necessity. Which type of ethics should philosophers use to answer this type of question? Are some people better equipped to answer questions about ethical dilemmas than others?

To review, see:

 

1c. Identify and describe the intrinsic value of philosophical investigation as an academic discipline

  • What is the intrinsic value of trying to understand ethical theories?
  • Do ethical theories have any connection to real life?
  • What does it mean to live an ethical or virtuous life?
  • Does Martin Luther King, Jr.'s letter suggest any real consequences for understanding abstract philosophical concepts?
  • What terms did King use that we might consider being philosophical or abstract? What importance did he give them in his letter?
  • How does understanding ethics and morality help us fix some specific problems today?

Ethical dilemmas are questions about what we should do in particular situations. Philosophers look for general principles about how we should make these decisions. For example, "Do not do anything that will harm other people". But what about situations where we only have two bad options and the best action may involve harming another person. Situations, such as war and the death penalty, raise questions about whether we should kill someone, given our options.

Ethics and philosophy seek to understand what principles are best for handling difficult situations and the implications of those principles. No matter how technical or abstract these disciplines may seem, they always relate questions about what we should do in a particular situation.

Plato and Aristotle, the Greek philosophers, examined what it means to live virtuously, or in ways that will promote human flourishing (eudaimonia) or living a good life. These thinkers considered the most important virtues to be wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. In the same manner, cultivating one's character includes learning to avoid vices, such as ignorance, cowardice (or brashness), intemperance, and injustice. Their theories about virtue focus on the development and state of one's character. So, rather than learn moral rules, the virtue theorist focuses on learning to become a moral person, to develop a virtuous character.

To review, see Major Ethical Systems, Virtue Ethics, and Letter from the Birmingham City Jail.

 

1d. Use the works of Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Aquinas, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., to compare and contrast theories of ethics

  • What are the two governances that Bentham says nature places humankind?
  • What is the principle of utility and the actions it refers to?
  • What did Bentham mean by utility?
  • What is consequentialism?
  • What is hedonism?
  • What did John Stuart Mill mean when he described a qualitative difference among different types of pleasures?
  • How do we know which pleasures are higher?
  • How did Mill illustrate the difference between higher and lower pleasures?
  • What does Mill say about Socrates, the pig, and the fool?
  • What is Mill's greatest happiness principle?
  • How do we determine what brings most people the most happiness? How do we count?
  • What if an action brings happiness to some, and pain to others? How do we decide?
  • What is monetized utilitarianism?
  • What is the difference between hedonistic and idealistic utilitarianism?
  • What is the difference between act and rule utilitarianism?
  • What is the difference between hard and soft utilitarianism?
  • According to Aquinas, what is the natural law and the eternal law?
  • Did Thomas Aquinas believe that the natural law is the same for everyone?
  • Did Aquinas believe that the natural law can change?
  • Did Aquinas believe that people can remove the natural law from their hearts?
  • How does Aquinas' concept of natural law differ from consequentialism?
  • What did Aquinas believe natural law is rooted in?
  • What are some different levels of precepts or commands in the natural law?
  • Why does Martin Luther King Jr. refer to Hitler in his letter?
  • What does King's reference indicate about legal and illegal actions?
  • How does this reference relate to King's conception of the moral law?

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the English philosopher, was the first major philosopher to espouse the principle of utility and utilitarianism. He examined the moral consequences of our actions in addition to the intrinsic quality of the act. Bentham believed that the right thing to do, individually and collectively, is to maximize the balance of pleasure over pain, and happiness over suffering, to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. He stated that it is preferable to act in ways that uphold "the greatest benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness ... to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness".

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), also an English philosopher, and Jeremy Bentham were both utilitarians, but they had different ideas about the specifics of utilitarianism. We could describe Bentham as a hedonistic utilitarian, and John Stuart Mill as an idealistic utilitarian because Mill believed some pleasures are higher than others. In Chapter 2 of Utilitarianism, Mill describes a "difference of quality in pleasures".

In addition to the readings about utilitarianism in the section on Jeremy Bentham, review the following materials on John Stuart Mill. While Mill and Bentham did not use the following terms themselves, they may help you understand how we evaluate different pleasures. Consider these exercises as a guide to some important terminology.

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the Italian priest and theologian, believed that natural law and eternal law (which are prescribed by God) go hand-in-hand. 

Aquinas writes in an unfamiliar format so you need to read carefully. First, he lays out the objections to his own beliefs. So, the first text you read is the opposite of what Aquinas believes (see the headings: Objection 1, 2, and 3). Next, he claims, "on the contrary", where he begins to present his argument against these objections, as if he is saying, "they have got it all wrong!" Finally, he responds to each objection one by one and offers his opinion on each issue.

Martin Luther King Jr.'s Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, which we introduced in 1b., above, is one of his most widely circulated and influential writings.

To review, see:

 

1e. Identify and describe central issues and branches in ethics, including moral intuition, reflective equilibrium, and utilitarianism, consequentialism, deontology, and natural law

  • What is a primary concern of deontological theory or deontological ethics?
  • What two types of duties does Kant distinguish?
  • What are the hypothetical imperative and categorical imperative?
  • What three keywords demonstrate how Kantian deontology can provide helpful guidelines for law enforcement?
  • What are moral intuition and reflective equilibrium?
  • Name some moral intuitions you consider to be fairly clear to right-thinking individuals. Do most people agree with you about these basic intuitions?
  • How do moral principles relate to moral intuitions?
  • What is the progress Rawls describes as reflective equilibrium?
  • How do we revise our moral principles in this process?
  • What is the veil of ignorance?
  • What two principles does John Rawls identify as being necessary for justice and fairness?

Consequentialism is an umbrella term that refers to several ethical theories that evaluate moral principles according to their consequences.

Utilitarianism is one specific form of consequentialism or consequentialist theory. Review utilitarianism and consequentialism in the sections about their founders, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, in learning outcome 1d. above.

Deontology, or ethical theories based on duty, focuses on our obligations. Derived from the Greek word, deon, duty dictates what we ought to do. Deontological ethical theories are focused on determining the principles we use to define our duties. We classify deontological ethical theories as non-consequentialist. That's because the morality of an action, in a deontological theory, is not determined by the consequences of that action, but whether or not the action was performed for the sake of duty.

John Rawls (1921–2002), the American moral and political philosopher, coined the theory of reflective equilibrium which suggests we should continually re-evaluate our moral principles, against our judgments and intuitions, to ensure our entire moral system is consistent.

Many associate Rawls' philosophy with Immanuel Kant, because Rawls also argued that we should follow certain rules absolutely, out of a sense of duty, just because they are right. Like Kant, Rawls believed we have a duty and obligation to follow these rules and principles.

To review, see Deontology, Rawls' Theory of Justice, and Reflective Equilibrium.

 

1f. Analyze how an ethical theory may influence policies in corporations and institutions and how an ethical theory may affect individual rights and liberties

  • What were the four steps to Martin Luther King Jr.'s program?
  • Did King express his disappointment about certain groups of people? Who in particular?
  • Why did King have to write such a long letter?
  • What was the advantage students at Karen Dillard College Prep had, and why it came about?
  • Was there something wrong with what happened?
  • What would a utilitarian have to say about this case?
  • Does utilitarianism provide the best framework to evaluate these actions ethically speaking?
  • Should the College Board have canceled the scores of the students who had an unfair advantage?
  • What happened in the Ford Pinto case? What was the topic of debate? What was the company's decision?
  • Did the Ford Motor Company make the right decision? Was it the best decision on utilitarian grounds? Are utilitarian grounds sufficient to weigh this decision?
  • Would a different kind of utilitarianism be a better approach?
  • What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of utilitarianism as an approach to business ethics?

In his Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, Martin Luther King, Jr. says an oppressor never voluntarily gives freedom to the person or people they oppress. For this reason, King creates a plan for demanding freedom. He says the oppressed have to demand freedom for themselves, or it will never be granted. King proposes a four-step program the oppressed can use to make their demands heard.

To review, see Letter from Birmingham City Jail and Utilitarianism: The Greater Good.

 

Unit 1 Vocabulary

  • applied ethics
  • Aristotle
  • consequentialism
  • deontology
  • eternal law
  • ethical dilemmas
  • ethics
  • hedonistic utilitarian
  • human flourishing (eudaimonia) 
  • idealistic utilitarian
  • Immanuel Kant
  • intrinsic 
  • Jeremy Bentham
  • John Rawls
  • John Stuart Mill
  • justice
  • living a good life
  • Martin Luther King, Jr.
  • metaethics
  • moral philosophy
  • moral principles
  • morality
  • natural law
  • necessity
  • normative ethics
  • obligations
  • Plato
  • pleasures
  • prescriptive ethics
  • principle of utility
  • reflective equilibrium
  • rights
  • social contract theory
  • St. Thomas Aquinas
  • Thomas Hobbes
  • utilitarianism
  • values
  • virtue ethics