PHIL103 Study Guide

Unit 2: Rights, the State, and the Free Market

2a. Define the concepts of citizenship and civil government as described by Plato

What is Plato's Theory of Forms?
How did Plato contrast things that are real from things that merely appear to be real?
Why do you believe Plato was correct or incorrect? Do some things seem real, but you find them merely ephemeral and passing when you think about them more closely?
What are some examples that exemplify Plato's point?
Why do you agree or disagree with Plato's belief that we judge other actions or things according to an ideal standard?
How many sections does Plato's divided line have?
What things did Plato put at the top? At the bottom? At each level in between?
Which things are most important? And by what ratio are they more important?
How does Plato define justice?
What is Socrates' view?
What does Thrasymachus say?
Who do you think is right?
If people know they can get away with doing wrong, will they do it?
Why should we live justly if we can get away with injustice?
Socrates wants to argue that even if we can get away with it, it is still better to live a just life. Do you think he can make a convincing argument for this point?
What are state, citizen, and citizenship?
How do these definitions relate to Plato's Theory of Forms?
What are the responsibilities a citizen has to the state?
What are the responsibilities the state has to its citizens?
What recourse does the citizen have if they want to opt out, or want a different state?
What are the divisions of the state and the three classes of people?
What are the virtues in human souls?
What are the three parts of the human soul?
How do the virtues in human souls relate to the divisions of the state and the classes of people?

Plato's Theory of Forms is probably his most influential idea. Plato explained that the things we see in front of us are not as "real" as we think. After all, these things disintegrate over time and can change like the wind. Living things die and physical objects pass away in time. However, the idea of these entities in their true essence never changes.

For example, although this chair may break, burn up, or be thrown away, the essence or form of "chairness" continues, and people continue to make chairs based on this pattern. Plato called this essence of "chairness" the form of the chair. Everything we think of patterns itself after a form. This includes concepts, such as justice, goodness, and the state.

Review the argument about the meaning of justice in Plato, the State, and the Soul. Pay careful attention to the sections, "What is Justice" and "The Privilege of Power". The next section, "Is Justice Better than Injustice?" discusses a ring a shepherd found which made him invisible (perhaps this sounds familiar – who knew this story was this old!). In Plato's story, the ring leads the shepherd to consider a life of crime. Why not? He could get away with it! This story in The Republic is at the beginning of Book II.

Many philosophers credit Plato for providing Thomas Hobbes with the foundation for the first version of his social contract theory. Hobbes's ideas offer a more modern description of state authority which says the state has authority because it embodies the will of the people. Together the people come together to agree, via a social contract, that they will live together according to certain rules. Our current views about democracy are rooted in this theory of the social contract. Note that we will review Hobbes's ideas in more detail in Unit 4.

To review, see The Republic, Theory of Forms, Plato's Republic, Socratic Citizenship: Plato, Crito, and Plato, the State, and the Soul.

2b. Explain the libertarian perspective on property rights and wealth as described by Robert Nozick

What is libertarianism?
What is redistributive taxation?
What is progressive taxation?
What do you think the role of taxation is in an ideal government?
What are liberal and liberalism according to Milton Friedman?
What are paternalism and collectivism?
What do paternalism and collectivism have to do with a theory of the state?
What are freedom, economic freedom, and political freedom?
Are economic freedom and political freedom related?
What narrow functions should a minimal state perform according to Robert Nozick?
Do you think his analogy, the "state as night-watchman", fits?
What did Nozick mean by entitlement theory? Which philosophers do you think influenced his theory the most?
What are anarchy and minarchist libertarianism?

The modern libertarian political movement is rooted in certain philosophical ideas about liberty, freedom, and the meaning of the state.

Milton Friedman (1912–2006), the American economist, espoused laissez-faire economics, an economic theory based on the principle of leaving things alone: the government should not get involved in regulating the economy, but allow things to take their course by promoting policies that support free trade and a free market economy.

Robert Nozick (1938–2002), the American philosopher, defended capitalism and libertarianism. In his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Nozick argued for a minimal state and described his theories about entitlement theory, anarchy, and minarchist libertarianism.

Nozick was not an anarchist – he supported the "night watchman" theory of the state, or minarchist libertarianism, which assigns a limited role to the state to protect property, such as from break-in, theft, and other harms.

Likewise, Nozick defended "entitlement theory", the belief that people are entitled to acquire and transfer their holdings, such as money or goods, but that the state does not have the right to force anyone to give up their holdings to benefit someone else, such as due to notions of distributive justice (which we review below), social good, or welfare.

To review, see:

2c. Explain the connection between property and labor described by John Locke

What were the three main philosophical ideals of the French Revolution, liberty, equality, and fraternity?
What kind of balance do these ideals set up according to John Locke? In other words, which two of these ideals are in tension with each other?
Where do the Europeans during this time period believe government gets its authority?
What was the relationship between property and government according to John Locke?
Describe Locke's thoughts on the state of nature, the first instance of social organization, and the basis for forming a government.
What are the characteristics of the state of nature according to John Locke?
If the state of nature is a state of liberty, does that mean there are no restrictions on my freedom? What restrictions would there be?
What is prescribed by the law of nature?
Who has the right to punish the offender?
What three things are missing in the state of nature?
What does Locke describe as the chief end of commonwealth in section 124?
What does John Locke mean by common to all men versus proper to his own person?
What things count as common?
What things are proper, or owned by one person?
What is it that makes something, which was once common, my own?
What is the role of labor and the meaning of enclosure?
What is the basis of a political society according to John Locke?
Why would someone want to join together into a society?
Once people have formed a community, what are its characteristics?
How closely and how firmly joined together are they who have formed a society?
What obligations does someone have to a society once it has been formed?

John Locke (1632–1704), the English philosopher, theorized that government was the manifestation of a general will or "consent of the governed" that allowed citizens to change their governors at will. His book, Treatises on Civil Government, influenced those who fought in the American revolution.

To review, see Second Treatise on Civil Government, Democratic Values: Liberty, Equality, Justice, Locke: Social Order, and Consenting Adults.

2d. Apply theories of freedom and distribution of wealth to specific situations

What is the importance of consent in today's society?
What was the importance of consent for John Locke?
What does Michael Sandel mean by pre-political?
How does taxation relate to consent according to John Locke?
How does taxation relate to freedom?
How does taxation relate to equality?
Should we impose taxes upon the rich for the good of the poor?
What would Robert Nozick think about using taxation for more equitable distribution? Would John Locke agree?
What concepts in Locke's Treatise would address this question?

John Locke said that the majority cannot violate an individual's unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The legislature does not have the authority to arbitrarily take an individual's property without their consent. However, he also says it costs a lot of money to run the government and everyone has an equal obligation to contribute. We own our property, according to the laws of the community. He justifies taxation by saying the majority, as a collective consent, can legitimately impose taxes in a way that is not arbitrary since everyone in the community is equally affected.

Robert Nozick argued that the state should play a minimal role in our lives, such as by serving as a night watchman, as we noted in learning outcome 2b. He believed it is okay for the state to tax citizens to pay for this minimalist role. He claimed that taxation is unfair because the state would be forcing citizens to contribute money they have worked hard for and earned to use for someone else's purposes.

To review, see This Land is My Land and Consenting Adults.

2e. Compare and contrast the theories of distributive justice and the economic principles of Plato, Locke, Nozick, and Milton Friedman

What functions should government perform according to Plato, John Locke, Robert Nozick, and Milton Friedman?
What are the responsibilities of citizens?
What are the rights of citizens?
What types of actions would be overstepping of the government's bounds, or overreaching of their responsibilities?
What job functions do you think the government should perform?
Should the rights of the individual citizen or rights of the state as a whole come first according to Nozick?
How can I preserve my rights without the state, which represents the whole community?
Would I be able to enjoy the same rights if there were no state or society? How would Locke respond to this question?
What responsibilities should individual citizens have toward their state agencies?
What responsibilities does the government have to provide for its citizens?
What role does private property have regarding these differing views of government?
Which of these thinkers reflects our ideals today, in your opinion?

Robert Nozick disagreed with John Rawls who argued that government should support distributive justice, the belief that principles of distribution should be equitable to everyone in the community. Nozick believed that the government's role should be minimal, and restricted to protecting property. He claimed that government should not correct economic inequality or disparities in distribution.

Nozick would have opposed the public assistance programs governments promote, such as healthcare, public education, public housing allowances, and unemployment. Current examples in the United States include Head Start, Medicaid, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), and Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF).

Plato argued that we owe our lives to the state. Locke argued that the state owes its existence to the consent of the governed. This may sound like a chicken and egg scenario (which came first?), but the difference is important because it helps us define our worldview.

The way we think about government and its responsibilities shapes how we think about its functions and our individual liberties. How do you think Locke, Nozick, and Plato would answer these questions?

Unit 2 Vocabulary

anarchy
capitalism
citizens
consent
consent of the governed
democracy
distributive justice
essence
entitlement theory
form
freedom
free market economy
free trade
goodeness
John Locke
justice
laissez-faire economics
libertarianism
liberty
meaning of the state
Milton Friedman
minarchist libertarianism
night watchman
Plato's Theory of Forms
property
Robert Nozick
social contract theory
state
taxation