The word ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom or habit. Ethics describes the branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality, which is derived from the Latin word moralis, meaning custom. Many use ethics synonymously with morality, values, and moral philosophy.
The study of ethics reflects a systematic examination of our attitudes and beliefs about how people should treat others and act as members of their community. Today’s philosophers and scholars continue to debate many of the same questions that preoccupied ancient ethical thinkers. Philosophers often incorporate the study of ethics within larger philosophical systems that include theories of knowledge, reality, aesthetics (the branch of philosophy that relates to the principles of beauty and art), and politics.
Prescriptive or normative ethics tell us how to act and be. This type of ethical reasoning is prescriptive and practical. It provides practical guides or norms by means of which we know how to act; it tells us what is right and wrong. Ethics is a prescriptive study insofar as we don’t just do it as a matter of course. If we did, we wouldn’t ask what we ought or should do. Normative questions include: “Is it ever ethical for me to lie?” and, “Do I have a duty to help the poor and those less fortunate than me?”
Metaethics is the study of morality and moral judgments. Metaethicists use descriptive and theoretical approaches to understanding the commitments and assumptions that underlie our thinking about morality and moral actions. In short, metaethics is concerned with uncovering the origin and nature of moral principles, moral attitudes, moral judgments, and moral properties. That is, metaethics is concerned with what it means to say that we should or ought to act the way a normative theory tells us we should.
Applied ethics examines controversial issues. For example, applied ethics applies normative and metaethical concepts to issues such as abortion, infanticide, euthanasia, stem-cell research, environmental issues, capital punishment, same-sex marriage, drug legalization, discrimination, and specific rights, such as animal rights.
Note that we will discuss different theories about ethics in the study guide that follows, including virtue ethics, social contract theory, deontology, and utilitarianism.
Review these major ethical theories in Ethical Systems from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Philosophers define ethical concepts, such as justice, differently. For example, Plato (c. 423–348 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC), the Greek philosophers, defined justice as following the laws of the state, provided the city is structured in a way that creates "just" laws.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1689), the English philosopher who wrote about social contract theory, defined justice as acting in a way that is within your power. Hobbes claimed that political leaders get to define what justice means, as long as they are strong or powerful enough to get away with it.
Review Virtue Ethics from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Review Social Contract Theory from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968), was an American Baptist minister and political activist, who promoted equal rights for African Americans during the civil rights movement from 1954 to 1968. He was assassinated in 1968 and is remembered for his ability to mobilize the American people to support civil rights, powerful speeches, and actions in favor of rights for all races. Martin Luther King, Jr. advocated for change in peaceful, non-violent ways. One of his most influential writings is his Letter from the Birmingham City Jail.
Review Letter from the Birmingham City Jail by Martin Luther King, Jr.
In his lecture, Michael Sandel, discusses how the shipmates Dudley and Stephens raised questions about whether it is ethical to change our moral principles or norms in cases of extreme need or necessity. Which type of ethics should philosophers use to answer this type of question? Are some people better equipped to answer questions about ethical dilemmas than others?
Review the lecture The Moral Side of Murder by Michael Sandel and the article R versus Dudley & Stephens from Wikipedia.
Ethical dilemmas are questions about what we should do in particular situations. Philosophers look for general principles about how we should make these decisions. For example, “Do not do anything that will harm other people.” But what about situations where we only have two bad options and the best action may involve harming another person. Situations, such as war and the death penalty, raise questions about whether we should kill someone, given our options.
Ethics and philosophy seek to understand what principles are best for handling difficult situations and the implications of those principles. No matter how technical or abstract these disciplines may seem, they always relate questions about what we should do in a particular situation.
Plato and Aristotle, the Greek philosophers, examined what it means to live virtuously, or in ways that will promote human flourishing (eudaimonia) or living a good life. These thinkers considered the most important virtues to be wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. In the same manner, cultivating one’s character includes learning to avoid vices, such as ignorance, cowardice (or brashness), intemperance, and injustice. Their theories about virtue focus on the development and state of one’s character. So, rather than learn moral rules, the virtue theorist focuses on learning to become a moral person, to develop a virtuous character.
Review section Major Ethical Systems, from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Review Virtue Ethics from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Martin Luther King, Jr. provides an excellent example of how our political leaders use discussions of philosophy and morality to support their causes.
Review Letter from the Birmingham City Jail, by Martin Luther King Jr.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the English philosopher, was the first major philosopher to espouse the principle of utility and utilitarianism. He examined the moral consequences of our actions in addition to the intrinsic quality of the act. Bentham believed that the right thing to do, individually and collectively, is to maximize the balance of pleasure over pain, and happiness over suffering, to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. He stated that it is preferable to act in ways that uphold "the greatest benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness ... to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness."
Review the following chapters from Bentham's work An Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation:
Review the following resources that discuss Bentham's beliefs, and utilitarianism in general.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), also an English philosopher, and Jeremy Bentham were both utilitarians, but they had different ideas about the specifics of utilitarianism. We could describe Bentham as a hedonistic utilitarian, and John Stuart Mill as an idealistic utilitarian, because Mill believed some pleasures are higher than others. Review Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill to find clues to this difference. For example, in Chapter 2, Mill describes a “difference of quality in pleasures.”
In addition to the readings about utilitarianism in the section on Jeremy Bentham, review the following materials on John Stuart Mill.
While Mill and Bentham did not use the following terms themselves, they may help you understand how we evaluate different pleasures. Consider these exercises as a guide to some important terminology.
Review Utilitarianism: The Greater Good from The Business Ethics Workshop.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the Italian priest and theologian, believed that natural law and eternal law (which are prescribed by God) go hand-in-hand.
Review Summa Theologica: Part I-II (Pars Prima Secundae), Question 94, Articles 4-6 by St. Thomas Aquinas to answer these three questions (really three parts of one question) regarding Aquinas's views on natural law.
Note that Aquinas writes in an unfamiliar format so you need to read carefully. First, he lays out the objections to his own beliefs. So, the first text you read is the opposite of what Aquinas believes (see the headings: Objection 1, 2, and 3). Next he claims, “on the contrary,” where he begins to present his argument against these objections, as if he is saying, "they have got it all wrong!" Finally, he responds to each objection one-by-one, and offers his opinion on each issue.
Review St. Thomas Aquinas on the Natural Law by Joseph M. Magee.
Review Natural Law from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Review Religion or Divine Command Theory from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, which we introduced in learning outcome 1b. above, is one of his most widely circulated and influential writings.
Review Letter from Birmingham City Jail by Martin Luther King, Jr.
Review Natural Law from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
In his letter, Martin Luther King, Jr. referred to a number of historical figures, including Adolf Hitler.
Consequentialism is an umbrella term that refers to several ethical theories that evaluate moral principles according to their consequences.
Utilitarianism is one specific form of consequentialism or consequentialist theory. Review utilitarianism and consequentialism in the sections about their founders, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, in learning outcome 1d. above.
Deontology, or ethical theories based on duty, focus on our obligations. Derived from the Greek word, deon, duty dictates what we ought to do. Deontological ethical theories, are focused on determining the principles we use to define our duties. We classify deontological ethical theories as non-consequentialist. That’s because the morality of an action, in a deontological theory, is not determined by the consequences of that action, but whether or not the action was performed for the sake of duty.
Note that we explore the beliefs of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the German philosopher, and deontology in detail in Unit 3.
Review Deontology and Rawls’s Theory of Justice from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
John Rawls (1921–2002), the American moral and political philosopher, coined the theory of reflective equilibrium which suggests we should continually re-evaluate our moral principles, against our judgements and intuitions, to ensure our entire moral system is consistent.
Many associate Rawls's philosophy with Immanuel Kant, because Rawls also argued that we should follow certain rules absolutely, out of a sense of duty, just because they are right. Like Kant, Rawls believed we have a duty and obligation to follow these rules and principles.
Review moral intuitions, moral principles, and reflective equilibrium in Tutorial U06: Reflective Equilibrium by Jonathan Chan, who explains that consistency is an important part of checking our moral decisions to make sure they are fair.
Review Rawls’s Theory of Justice from Ethics in Law Enforcement.
In his Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, Martin Luther King, Jr. says an oppressor never voluntarily gives freedom to the person or people they oppress. For this reason, King creates a plan for demanding freedom. He says the oppressed have to demand freedom for themselves, or it will never be granted. King proposes a four-step program the oppressed can use to make their demands heard.
Review Letter from Birmingham City Jail by Martin Luther King, Jr.
Review the Karen Dillard case in Utilitarianism: The Greater Good from The Business Ethics Workshop.
More specifically, we might say the Ford Motor Company’s decision involved a monetized utilitarianism.
Review the Ford Pinto case in Utilitarianism: The Greater Good from The Business Ethics Workshop.