Monetary Policy and the Fed
Read this chapter to understand in more detail the monetary policy tools, process, and impacts on the U.S. economy. Review specific monetary policies and their effects from our recent history.
Monetary Policy and the Equation of Exchange
The Equation of Exchange
We can relate the money supply to the aggregate economy by using the equation of exchange:
Equation 11.1
The
equation of exchange shows that the money supply M times its velocity V
equals nominal GDP. Velocity is the number of times the money supply is
spent to obtain the goods and services that make up GDP during a
particular time period.
To see that nominal GDP is the price
level multiplied by real GDP, recall from an earlier chapter that the
implicit price deflator P equals nominal GDP divided by real GDP:
Equation 11.2
Multiplying both sides by real GDP, we have
Equation 11.3
Letting Y equal real GDP, we can rewrite the equation of exchange as
Equation 11.4
We
shall use the equation of exchange to see how it represents spending in
a hypothetical economy that consists of 50 people, each of whom has a
car. Each person has $10 in cash and no other money. The money supply of
this economy is thus $500. Now suppose that the sole economic activity
in this economy is car washing. Each person in the economy washes one
other person's car once a month, and the price of a car wash is $10. In
one month, then, a total of 50 car washes are produced at a price of $10
each. During that month, the money supply is spent once.
Applying
the equation of exchange to this economy, we have a money supply M of
$500 and a velocity V of 1. Because the only good or service produced is
car washing, we can measure real GDP as the number of car washes. Thus Y
equals 50 car washes. The price level P is the price of a car wash:
$10. The equation of exchange for a period of 1 month is
$500 × 1 = $10 × 50
Now suppose that in the second month everyone washes someone else's car again. Over the full two-month period, the money supply has been spent twice - the velocity over a period of two months is 2. The total output in the economy is $1,000 - 100 car washes have been produced over a two-month period at a price of $10 each. Inserting these values into the equation of exchange, we have
$500 × 2 = $10 × 100
Suppose this process continues for one more month. For the three-month period, the money supply of $500 has been spent three times, for a velocity of 3. We have
$500 × 3 = $10 × 150
The essential thing to note
about the equation of exchange is that it always holds. That should come
as no surprise. The left side, MV, gives the money supply times the
number of times that money is spent on goods and services during a
period. It thus measures total spending. The right side is nominal GDP.
But that is a measure of total spending on goods and services as well.
Nominal GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced during
a particular period. Those goods and services are either sold or added
to inventory. If they are sold, then they must be part of total
spending. If they are added to inventory, then some firm must have
either purchased them or paid for their production; they thus represent a
portion of total spending. In effect, the equation of exchange says
simply that total spending on goods and services, measured as MV, equals
total spending on goods and services, measured as PY (or nominal GDP).
The equation of exchange is thus an identity, a mathematical expression
that is true by definition.
To apply the equation of exchange to a
real economy, we need measures of each of the variables in it. Three of
these variables are readily available. The Department of Commerce
reports the price level (that is, the implicit price deflator) and real
GDP. The Federal Reserve Board reports M2, a measure of the money
supply. For the second quarter of 2008, the values of these variables at
an annual rate were
M = $7,635.4 billion
P = 1.22
Y = 11,727.4 billion
To solve for the velocity of money, V, we divide both sides of Equation 11.4 by M:
Equation 11.5
Using
the data for the second quarter of 2008 to compute velocity, we find
that V then was equal to 1.87. A velocity of 1.87 means that the money
supply was spent 1.87 times in the purchase of goods and services in the
second quarter of 2008.