HIST363: Global Perspectives on Industrialization

Belgium

Equestrian statue of Leopold II of Belgium, the Sovereign of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, Regent Place in Brussels, Belgium

• Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (today's the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Ruanda-Urundi (comprising modern Rwanda and Burundi, 1922–62)

France

The Foureau-Lamy military expedition sent out from Algiers in 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and unify all French territories in West Africa.

• French West Africa:
  • Mauritania
  • Senegal
  • Albreda (1681–1857, now part of Gambia)
  • French Sudan (now Mali, 1880 – 1958)
  • French Guinea (now Guinea)
  • Ivory Coast
  • Niger
  • French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
  • French Dahomey (now Benin)
  • French Togoland (1916–60, now Togo)
  • Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (in modern Nigeria)
    

• French Equatorial Africa:
  • Gabon
  • French Cameroun (1922–60)
  • French Congo (now Republic of the Congo)
  • Oubangui-Chari (now Central African Republic)
  • Chad
    

• French North Africa:
  • French Algeria
  • French Protectorate of Tunisia
  • French Protectorate of Morocco
  • Fezzan-Ghadames (1943–1951) (administration given by the UNO after its conquest by Charles de Gaulle)
  • Egypt (ownership (1798–1801)) (Condominium of France and the United Kingdom (1876–1882))
    

• French East Africa:
  • French Madagascar
  • Comoros
  • Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean
  • French Somaliland (now Djibouti)
  • Isle de France (1715–1810) (now Mauritius)
    
    

Germany

The Senegalese Tirailleurs, led by Colonel Alfred-Amédée Dodds, conquered Dahomey (present-day Benin) in 1892

• German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria, 1884–1916)
• German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi and most of Tanzania, 1885–1919)
• German South-West Africa (now Namibia, 1884–1915)
• German Togoland (now Togo and eastern part of Ghana, 1884–1914)
  

After the First World War, Germany's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).

Italy

Italian Settlers in Massawa

• Italian Eritrea
• Italian Somalia
  • Oltre Giuba (annexed into Italian Somalia in 1925)

• Libya
  • Italian Tripolitania
  • Italian Cyrenaica
  • Italian Libya (from the unification of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934)
    

During the Interwar period, Italian Ethiopia formed together with Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana", also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).

Portugal

Marracuene in Portuguese Mozambique was the site of a decisive battle between Portuguese and Gaza king Gungunhana in 1895

• Portuguese Angola (now Angola)
  • Mainland Angola
  • Portuguese Congo
  • (now Cabinda Province of Angola)
• Portuguese Mozambique
• (now Mozambique)
• Portuguese Guinea
• (now Guinea-Bissau)
  

• Portuguese Cape Verde
• Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe
  • São Tomé Island
  • Príncipe Island
  • Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá
  • (now Ouidah, in Benin)

Spain

• Northern Spanish Morocco
  • Chefchaouen (Chauen)
  • Jebala (Yebala)
  • Kert
  • Loukkos (Lucus)
  • Rif
    

• Spanish West Africa
  • Ifni
  • Southern Spanish Morocco (Cape Juby)
  • Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara)
    • Saguia el-Hamra
    • Río de Oro
      

• Spanish Guinea
• (now Equatorial Guinea)
  • Fernando Pó
  • Río Muni
  • Annobón

United Kingdom

The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.

Opening of the railway in Rhodesia, 1899

Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom.

• Egypt
• British Cyrenaica (1943-1951, now part of Libya)
• British Tripolitania (1943-1951, now part of Libya)
• Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
• British Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
• British East Africa:
  • Kenya Colony
  • Uganda Protectorate
  • Tanzania :
    • Tanganyika Territory (1919–61)
    • Zanzibar
      

• British Mauritius
• Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
• Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
• Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
• British Seychelles
• British South Africa
  • South Africa :
    • Transvaal Colony
    • Cape Colony
    • Colony of Natal
    • Orange River Colony
  • South-West Africa (from 1915, now Namibia)
    

• British West Africa
  • Gambia Colony and Protectorate
  • British Sierra Leone
  • Colonial Nigeria
  • British Togoland (1916–56, today part of Ghana)
  • Cameroons (1922–61, now part of Cameroon and Nigeria)
  • Gold Coast (British colony) (now Ghana)
• Nyasaland (now Malawi)
• Basutoland (now Lesotho)
• Swaziland (now Eswatini)
• St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
  
  

Independent States

Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was regarded as a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1822. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa's oldest republic, and the second-oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti). Liberia maintained its independence during the period as it was viewed by European powers as either a colony or protectorate of the United States.

Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa in 1896. With the exception of Italian occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa's oldest independent nation.

Connections to Modern-Day Events

Anti-neoliberal scholars connect the old scramble to a new scramble for Africa, coinciding with the emergence of an "Afro-neoliberal" capitalist movement in postcolonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence after World War II, their postcolonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. These scholars claim that the decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally dependent economic relations. They also claim that structural adjustment programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market, and that these factors led to development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.

Oil and gas concessions in the Sudan – 2004

Petrostates

In the era of globalization, several African countries have emerged as petrostates (for example Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, and the Sudan). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil-rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space [is] central to imperial expansion and control"; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neocolonialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40% of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, the Sudan exports 50–60% of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7% of China's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.