HIST363: Global Perspectives on Industrialization

Watch this lecture to learn about the general course of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. The video also gives a good overview of changing attitudes about historical perspectives on the industrial revolution.

Watch this video about the origins of the Industrial Revolution in England. Specifically, it addresses how coal and steam power drove the Industrial Revolution and how England was uniquely situated to harness them at the critical historical moment.

Watch this short video for some added insight into England's Industrial Revolution. In particular, consider how the Agricultural and Scientific Revolutions helped drive what became the Industrial Revolution and how the Industrial Revolution, in turn, affected agriculture and science in its wake.

Read this article about the many components of mercantilism. Since mercantilism was less a school of thought than a collection of policies, this piece does an excellent job explaining the underlying economic thinking of the time and how it created those policies.

Watch this video about mercantilism at the beginning of the Age of Exploration (and shortly before it). Of particular interest are the four major trade routes of the time and how they impacted the growth of mercantilism-inspired trade.

Read this biographical article about Adam Smith. It contains some key insights about how The Wealth of Nations essentially created the field of economics and how its focus on labor rather than land ownership revolutionized international trade.

Here is The Wealth of Nations in Smith's own words. Browse this work and read the first book to get a sense of the arguments Smith made in his writing.

Read this biographical article about Friedrich List. It offers some context for his refinements to Smith's ideas, based on List's wealth of experiences.

Read this short excerpt from List's work. In particular, note how his ideas about a "national system of political economy" would come to shape economic policy.

Read this biographical article about Karl Marx. It also explains a number of his views and gives context to the birth of his ideas about the social impacts of capitalism.

Read The Communist Manifesto. While we have come to think of the term "manifesto" as referring to a large tome, this one is rather concise, particularly considering its volume of philosophical explanations. This page also contains several prefaces to the various published versions of the work and other related documents.

Read this biographical article about Max Weber. Weber's specific interest in the intersection of economics, social class, and religion also gives context to Weber's other works through the same lens.

Watch this video about Weber's Protestant Ethic. It is an interesting contextualization of Weber's thinking about economic theory, particularly as affected by religious affiliation. In particular, it covers contemporary viewpoints about various distinctions between Protestant and Catholic ethics.

Read this biographical article about Joseph Schumpeter. It gives some interesting context to his innovations in economic thought, which were largely eclipsed by the rise of Keynesian economics.

Read Schumpeter's article and note his argument about the connection between individualistic economic desire and the community at large. Take note of how "methodological individualism" influences economic value.

Read this article to learn about the theory and application of ISI policies implemented in Latin American countries during the 20th century. See if you can recognize the threads of List's theories that helped inform this trade and economic policy.

Read this overview of Rostow's Stages of Growth Theory. Pay particular attention to the impact of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), "structural adjustment" programs, and how they impact the development of the countries whose aid they accepted.

Read this text about globalization and its effects. About ⅔ of the way through, it brings in Rostow's ideas and how it informs the Human Development Index (HDI). It then explains how, together, the HDI and Rostow's stages of growth combine to create a way to understand development.

Read this article, which lays out the role of dependency theory in global development and trade. It also includes historical perspectives and critiques of the theory.

Read this article to understand the arguments that dependency theorists make about industrialization and trade. It also offers some possible remedies to dependency.

Watch these two lectures, which provide a general overview of agricultural change in China. Chinese farmers invented a wide range of devices to increase farms' yield and save labor. Many of these practices were diffused to other parts of the world, especially Europe.

Read this article about Roman mining to learn how ancient Romans solved its technical problems. They even had mechanical devices for removing modest amounts of water from mineshafts.

Read this article about the history and evolution of Roman glass production. The manufacture of glassware was known throughout the ancient world, but Roman artisans produced glass on an unprecedented scale. During the first century BCE, the invention of glassblowing allowed artisans to quickly create glass products in a wide range of shapes, bringing cheap glass to mass markets.

Read this article to learn about the origins of China's great inventions, which include the compass, gunpowder, paper, and printing. After reading about China's role in inventing each of these, feel free to search for articles about each specific invention for more history of the use and development of these tools.

Read this article to learn about the origins of bronze and copper metallurgy in ancient China. After a significant period of stability, the Chinese began to replace its older production methods to produce bronze on an industrial scale.

Watch this video about the creation of trade networks. "New trade networks caused an explosion in the trade of goods, but also of ideas, technologies, and diseases".

Read this chapter, which covers the massive shift to European society brought on by the change in the basis of wealth and power from land ownership to capital, with the rise of a "merchant class".

Watch this video about how English merchants came to power, propelled by the English wool trade. "By the 14th century, these merchants organized into a guild that gave them more power and privileges in English society".

Watch this video about how traders kept the Silk Road trade route alive. Other empires and regional powers also provided some stability for the roughly four centuries between the Han and Tang dynasties.

Read this article about the history of the Dutch East India Company, from start to finish. Of particular interest is the significant impact this one company had on all of Europe for nearly 200 years.

Watch this video about the role of agriculture in establishing the first cities and states. "Fueled by surplus crops, agriculture led to the formation of the world's first large-scale civilizations".

Read this article about the important agricultural inventions of the 18th century. Just as agriculture drove the formation of cities and states, these inventions drove agriculture.

Read this article about the spaces in which manufacturing was performed over several centuries. It has some interesting things to say about understanding these spaces in their social and technological contexts.

Watch this video about the industrial revolution and the gradual transition from handcrafts to factory products. Of particular interest are the social and economic disruptions caused by the shift.

Watch this video about the Columbian Exchange. With the instability at the time of the Silk Road, European traders needed to find another way to trade with the far east.

Read this introduction and watch the lecture. The Columbian Exchange included not just the trade of plants, animals, and goods but also ideas and attitudes that shaped the development of the new world.

Watch these videos about the Columbian Exchange. In particular, they cover some of the more complex and subtle points of this turning point in global history.

Watch this video about the transatlantic slave trade. It summarizes the peak and decline of the slave trade, brought on by the shortage of labor needed to exploit the resources of the new world.

Watch this video about the Atlantic slave trade. It considers the damage done to the enslaved people and how the practice damaged the communities where people were taken from.

Watch this video about the Macartney Expedition. Lord Macartney met with the Qing emperor, seeking greater trade between England and China. "His failure highlighted several facts about the shifting global economy".

Read this article to learn how trade was conducted between China and western European countries – and how individual merchants from the United States found their way into the system over British corporate objections.

Read this article about the two Opium Wars. It offers an overview of both Opium Wars, their causes, and their outcomes.

Read these excellent details about the events and players involved. Feel free to peruse the other tabs as well.

Read this article about how coal provided the essential fuel for many industrialization activities. Would the Industrial Revolution have occurred without coal?

Watch this short video about people who worked in the coal mines to provide fuel for England's Industrial Revolution and beyond. It features former coal miners who are now tour guides at England's National Coal Mining Museum.

Read this excerpt from the Coal Atlas. Of particular interest is how coal acted as a primary source of fueling industry spread around the globe.

Read this article about the spread of steam power. Pay attention to how many other things steam power made possible and its full consequences.

Read this article.

Read this article about how the use of steam power spread throughout England. It also explains the early technological developments in harnessing steam power.

Read this article about how textile manufacturing in England spurred the Industrial Revolution. In particular, it explains what the industry was like before and after the Industrial Revolution, pointing up its effects.

Read this article about the technological developments in the textile industry in particular. Interestingly, at a certain point, new technology stopped being adopted to continuously refine what was already there.

Read these two articles to learn how new technology changed people's lives. Note how each side tries to make an argument for the common good.

Read this article about these machine-breaking movements. They began with the Luddites, who were textile workers opposed to how machines in textile factories were being used to deprive some people of work. They were being used to help factory owners get around some of the few fair labor practices.

Read this article about machine-breaking movements more broadly. It explains some similarities and differences between movements on both sides of the English Channel.

Read this article about the beginnings of the factory system. Labor would come to be organized around the factories that housed the machinery of industrialized production.

Read this excerpt of Ure's 1835 book, which gives a contemporary account of the benefits of the factory system in England. Observed from the perspective of the emerging merchant class, it is an enthusiastic endorsement.

Read this brief series of short accounts of the physical deterioration of the English manufacturing class. The accounts of "what the work did to the worker" are from the perspective of a medical observer.

Read this article about advancements in metalworking that decreased the price of iron. In turn, less expensive iron quickly made its way into machinery and engine production.

Read this article about how new techniques in metallurgy allowed for the mass production of steel. It is considered one of the primary drivers of the Second Industrial Revolution.

Watch this video, which shows each component of the steel-making process. In addition to history, it also shows how steel mill products are used.

Read this article, which explains the history of steel production and the processes involved in its manufacture. Pay attention to the definitions and scientific descriptions.

Read this article to learn about the origins of railroads and their effect on industrialization. It pays special attention to the relationship between time and distance, how the railroad changed it, and what those changes came to mean.

Read this article about the economic and societal implications of the proliferation of railways. While railroads were made possible by industrial advances, the railroads also improved industrial production and made moving raw materials and finished goods significantly less expensive.

Read this article, which explains what railroads brought to North America. Canada specifically already had a system of waterways and canals, so railways served a slightly different purpose than they did in England.

Read this article about the development of the Transcontinental Railroad. The invention of the Pullman sleeping car, in particular, made longer-distance travel much more comfortable than it had been previously.

Watch this video about the development of canals, steamboats, and railroads. It features development timelines and explains some of the transportation systems that English engineers worked on all over the new world.

Read this article, which discusses how demographic changes affected urbanization in Europe. It explains some of the challenges of urbanization and some of the things urbanization made possible.

Read this article about the ills of urbanization. Many issues had not been addressed, from pollution to health issues to poverty, overcrowding, and crime.

Watch this lecture to learn how industrialization changed urban life during the 19th century. It also covers how the growth of cities during this time differed between the U.S. and European cities.

Watch this excerpt from this lecture you watched earlier to focus on how the Industrial Revolution changed women's lives.

Read this short article about women's roles in the workforce at the time of the Industrial Revolution. It includes accounts of women working in factories, as field hands, and as coal miners.

Read these short excerpts from Parliamentary papers about English women working in coal mines'. Accounts vary from those of the women themselves to an outside inspector who finds the spectacle of women working in the coal mines "disgusting"'.

Read this article about the emergence of two jobs suitable for unmarried middle-class women. At the time, women who were not strictly of the laboring class were not supposed to work outside the home, but "there were not enough husbands to go round", and it was not always possible for a woman's family to support her throughout her life. Being a nurse or a typewriter gradually became more acceptable employment for single, middle-class women, helping those who remained unmarried.

Read this article about children living during the time of the Industrial Revolution. While it offers more of an account of the lives of lower-class children of the time, it also describes the contrasting experience of upper-class children.

Read this article about the historical debate surrounding child labor. Of particular interest is the perspective that "the nature of children's work changed so dramatically that child labor became seen as a social problem and a political issue".

Read this article about how "the exploitation of the child workforce intensified during the Industrial Revolution". It covers some of the early legislation enacted to combat the abuses suffered by child laborers.

Read this article about the Victorian Era in England, which sets the stage for the rest of the sub-unit.

Read these excerpts from Friedrich Engels' The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844. It describes the industrialized areas of Manchester, England, and the surrounding workers' neighborhoods.

Read this article about Victorian England's quality of life. In particular, note the shift in most people's circumstances between the earlier and later Victorian eras.

Read this article about the state of public health in the Mid-Victorian era in England. Consider its arguments against what we know of people's lifestyles during those times. What accounts for any differences in the accounts?

Read this excerpt from Florence Nightingale's Selected Writings of Florence Nightingale. She describes the unsanitary conditions in which many people lived and how mothers could change the environment to make it healthier for children.

Watch this video to discover "how the production of agricultural surplus enabled a ruling class based on exploitation to take power". Pay special attention to the steps involved in this process. Do they make sense in the social and historical context considered?

Read these selected excerpts from Andrew Carnegie's "Wealth". Carnegie was a dedicated philanthropist: many of his endowments enrich today's higher education institutions. What do you think of his sense of public service?

Read this article to understand the distinctions between socialism, socialist economics, market socialism, and related terms. It also covers key figures in socialist regimes and their policies.

Read this article about conflict theory. Karl Marx suggested that conflict (particularly between the bourgeoisie and proletariat) was a force for societal change.

Read these primary source documents that France's provisional government issued in 1848. The French revolutionaries' actions and ideals quickly spread to many other European nations. The excerpts come from the book, Readings in European History, edited by James Harvey Robinson and published in 1906. 

Watch these two lectures about Marx's Theory of Alienation and Marx's Theory of Class and Exploitation. Both lectures do an excellent job showing how Marx's theories evolved and the events that influenced them.

Read these chapters about the political changes sparked by the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and Victorian culture – including scientific advances and pseudo-science. Together, they illustrate a socio-political snapshot of this extraordinary time in the British Empire.

Watch this lecture, which explores why Britain did not experience the revolutionary upsurges that other European nations faced in 1848. Merriman explores the role of cultural values in addition to the reasons we have noted above.

Read this article about the Chartist movement and what it did (and did not) accomplish. Pay particular attention to how the Chartists exploited the tensions between moral and physical force.

Read this article about the Reform Act of 1832. Although the act itself did not achieve sweeping reform, it set the stage for further alteration of the political landscape.

Read this article about the Second Reform Act, which promoted more significant reform than its predecessor. It was responsible for complicating the political landscape by moving Britain toward universal male suffrage.

Read this article about how historical forces shaped big business. Of particular interest is the global perspective.

Read this article about Corporate Social Responsibility, or CSR. It offers multiple arguments around the topic. Does the format help you see the issues of CSR from a broader perspective?

Read this article about the important inventions of the Industrial Revolution and how they propelled it forward. Also, watch the video depicting these inventions and their impacts in greater detail.

Read this article about the inventors who created some of the important inventions of the Industrial Revolution. How did they contribute to the rise of big business?

Read this article explaining how monopolies form. Note the distinctions between natural and legal monopolies and how each develops.

Read this article to find out how the telephone and electric light fueled the growth of large corporations in the United States and the culture that made them possible. The inventors Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) and Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) had a great deal of contemporary competition. Still, each inventor had a unique and clever approach, which ultimately allowed them to win the patents for their inventions.

Read this article to learn how an oligopoly works. Neither monopolies nor various kinds of competitive environments behave quite the same way.

Watch this video about "crony capitalism", or collusion between the business and political classes. This era not only saw the rise of big business and the making of the so-called robber barons, but it also shaped the economic and political landscapes for decades to come.

Read this article from the late 19th century to learn about industrial trusts and cartels and why people objected. Lloyd is especially critical of the robber barons.

Read this biographical article about Henry Ford. He revolutionized transportation by making an affordable car; he also revolutionized the way factories built products.

Read this article to learn more about Henry Ford, the Ford Motor Company, the assembly line, and the socio-economic impacts they had, both in the United States and worldwide. Can you point to some of these impacts that we still observe today?

Read this biographical article on Frederick Taylor, who sought to improve industrial efficiency and maximize output. It contains some good explanations and critiques of his "scientific management".

Read this article about the political and social impacts of economic and technological progress in the United States. It covers a full spectrum of changes to the emerging culture: wealth moved and became more concentrated, new immigration and continued urbanization, and attitudes about social roles.

Watch these videos about the forces of capital and labor in the United States and how they impacted American culture and society. The first video focuses on the relationship between capital and labor. The second is concerned with the concentration of wealth and political power. The third deals with social movements and reactions to the terms of the robber barons and political machines.

Read this article about labor relations and what many called "progress" at the time. In particular, it covers "both workers' desire for labor unions and the reasons for unions' inability to achieve their goals".

Watch this lecture. Focus on how labor movements formed political organizations in Europe.

Read this article about the history of capitalism. Although the term capitalism was coined in the 19th century, its practices are much older.

Read Marx's article about the nature of labor under capitalism. This writing builds on his earlier thinking about political economy and the commodification of labor.

Read this article about political protests in Japan. It uses a series of political posters and handbills to organize the historical accounts of the political unrest that spawned them.

Read this article on the history of labor unions in Japan. Pay special attention to the section about the first half of the Meiji Era (1868–1912).

Read this article which describes a labor protest in China. The author attributes the strike's success to cultural unity, suggesting that laborers elsewhere should follow their example.

Read this article about the history of industrial agriculture. It also explains the interconnection of technology and global trade.

Watch this video about industrial agriculture. It conceptualizes industrial agriculture as being at the intersection of science and technology, economics, and politics and explains the connections visually.

Watch this video on the effects of industrialized agriculture. Specifically, it is most concerned with the environmental impacts.

Read this article about penny newspapers' influence on mass media. It details how the penny newspaper changed American society politically, educationally, technologically, and socially.

Read this article about the roles media play in our society and how it came to be this way. For example, some current (and modern) roles of mass media are to 1. entertain and provide an outlet for the imagination, 2. educate and inform, 3. serve as a public forum to discuss important issues, and 4. act as a watchdog for government, business, and other institutions.

Read this article about the consumer culture that emerged in the United States at the end of the 19th century. With goods being produced in greater volume and more cheaply than ever, and people earning wages in urban settings rather than living off the land, consumer culture has taken hold and has yet to let go.

Watch this vintage video about the impact of advertising. It focuses on the positive effects of advertising on economic growth, social improvement, and other areas.

Read this chapter of Lenin's book, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, to understand the growing competition between capitalist businesses in the years leading up to 1914. Was World War I inevitable in light of this competition?

Watch this lecture to learn how increasing industrialization led to a new type of imperialism in the 19th century and how that imperialism set the stage for the First World War. John Merriman describes the European colonial expansion that contributed to the start of World War I. In particular, he explores three key factors in the "new imperialism": religious proselytizing, profit, and inter-imperial political strategy.

Read this article to learn how the economic imperatives of industrialization led European nations to expand their imperial control into Africa. It features a "causes" section that discusses the impetus for each colonizing power's desire to partition a whole continent.

Watch this video on the nature and history of imperialism. In his analysis, Jeremy Hodges focuses on European imperialism toward Africa.

Read this article about the precipitating factors of European imperialism toward the rest of the world, including Africa. The export of violence would "come home to roost in 1914".

Read this article about American Imperialism around the turn of the 20th century. Although American expansion continued well into the 20th century, this era is arguably the one most marked by American imperialist ideas.

Read this overview of World War I. One of the important areas it covers is the "social trauma" brought on by the war and the difficulty of recovery from the conflict.

Read this article about the technology of warfare during World War I. Although some of this technology had already been invented, it was the first truly mechanized war.

Watch this video about the mechanization of warfare. Note that this video includes disturbing images and may not be appropriate for all viewers.

Read this overview of the period of the U.S. involvement in World War I. The account includes preludes to war and postwar instabilities and their effects.

Read this text about the period from wartime into the age of prosperity and decadence that followed in the 1920s. It also covers some different takes on social attitudes of the time. Feel free to read selectively for those.

Read this article about how World War I and its aftermath changed the global power structures. In particular, it elevated the United States into a world leadership role – although many Americans were hardly enthusiastic about its new position.

During World War I, American farmers experienced a huge boom in demand and prices, which continued into the postwar time with relief efforts. Read this article about how the agricultural depression came about–and how suddenly it happened.

Read this article. Some people contend that the beginning of World War II ended the Great Depression, while others suggest it was the end of World War II that brought economic restabilization.

Read this article about the Great Depression in the United States. In addition to introducing the various causes, the text also covers The New Deal, a bundle of legislation that pulled the country out of depression and was arguably responsible for fully modernizing the United States.

Read this article on the U.S. experience in World War II. In addition to covering many of the social aspects of the war, it also considers the U.S. entry and its experience in each theater of war.

Read this article on the origins of World War II. It provides a global perspective on the multiple causes and how each of the powers involved entered the conflict.

Read this opinion on the causes of the postwar "baby boom". Do you agree with this perspective?

Read this article about how World War II changed Europe. These changes reached far into the future, and some affect the world order even today.

Read this article, which takes its name from John Kenneth Galbraith's book about the postwar economic boom and political culture. It was undoubtedly an unprecedented time in American history, but it ultimately did not quite match mainstream expectations.

Watch this explainer video about the Bretton Woods institutions. The original aim of these institutions was to help all nations reach a higher economic and social potential. They would see mixed results, but their impact on the global economy is indisputable.

Read this article about the breakup of the Bretton Woods System. However, it is worth noting that the institutions still exist; this piece is a critique of their economic policies.

Watch this speech by George Marshall, the postwar Secretary of State. He lays out what would be called "The Marshall Plan". This is the inception of the plan that would change the course of world history.

Read this article about how the rebuilding of postwar Europe was split between the Marshall and Molotov plans. This split would form the basis of the Cold War, which would dominate the rest of the 20th century.

Read this article about the Soviet economic apparatus established in 1917. The Bolsheviks, who had been more of an underground society, theorizing about how to implement communism against the Tsars, suddenly found themselves in control of a large, modern, industrial economy.

Read this short article about the famine of 1921–1922. In addition to political tensions and the difficulty of revolutionizing the economy, the Volga basin was hit by the second crop failure in as many years.

Read this short article about the militarization of labor. It was a two-pronged plan involving the military's mobilization into a labor structure and placing urban workers under strict supervision.

Read this article about the Kronstadt Uprising. Discontented and hungry, many sailors at the Kronstadt naval base mutinied under the slogan, "All power to the Soviets, and not the parties".

Read this short article about the New Economic Policy (NEP), implemented in response to the previously discussed hardships. Among other things, it pinned economic recovery to internal market forces to stabilize the economy.

Read this short article about trade pacts made with the west as part of the NEP. It was a move that was both desperate and pragmatic.

Read this short article about workers' opposition to the NEP and its associated policies. In particular, workers were concerned about the apparent drift toward heavy bureaucracy.

Read this article about the Soviet industrialization debate. It represented a turning point in Soviet history, as people disagreed on how best to modernize the Soviet state.

Read this article about how the productivity demands of the NEP affected labor. "Shock work" was the term for work above and beyond the call of duty. Soon, most workers were "shock workers", making the term more or less meaningless.

To give some context to the foundation of Stalinist Industrialization, read this article about the Soviet Union's first five-year plan, which covered 1928 to 1932. The plan contained several economic goals designed to revolutionize agriculture and industry.

Read this short article about a very significant state newspaper article. It marked a break with the NEP as the five-year plan had begun.

Watch this video, which describes what some historians consider to be the time of the Industrial Revolution in China: the Song Dynasty. In addition to explaining how the silk trade drove this time of great innovation and empowerment, the presenter considers how historians could call the Song Dynasty the Chinese Industrial Revolution and how it differed from the Industrial Revolution in England.

Read this review of Kenneth Pomeranz's book to learn about the basic argument presented concerning the diverging development paths of China and Western Europe during the Industrial Revolution.

Read this article on the debate surrounding the "Great Divergence". It takes a critical look at the traditional assumptions on why Europe seemed to lead the way in industrialization.

Watch this video about the Chinese Communist Revolution. Consider the title: "When Peasants Changed the World".

Watch this video on the Chinese Communist Revolution, which resulted from a particularly bloody civil war followed by significant political, economic, and social restructuring. All of these changes brought unforeseen complications to Mao Zedong's fledgling rule.

Read this article about the "Great Leap Forward". Mao's attempt to swiftly modernize the Chinese state was largely considered "a major economic and humanitarian disaster".

Read this article about "China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution". It marked a complex refashioning of Chinese labor relations and politics.

Read this article about the time of the Edo Period to the Meiji Restoration, otherwise known as the Seclusion of Japan. The Edo Period was especially isolationist.

Read this article about Japan's Edo Period (1603–1868). It was ruled by the isolationist Tokugawa shogunate, with a very elaborate social structure.

Read this article about the Meiji Restoration (1868–1889). Considered by some to be more of a renewal or even a revolution, it is most typically marked by the return of imperial power from the shogun and the opening to trade brokered by Commodore Mathew Perry (1794–1858).

Watch this video about the Meiji Restoration, in which a family tells their experiences of the intense upheaval that characterized this time. The main character is one of the first merchants to open a seaside shop in the developing economy.

Read this article about the initial opening of Japan. It was arguably brought on by the visit of Commodore Perry, whose party arrived in steamships: a technology with which then-feudal Japan was not familiar.

Read this article, which takes a much longer-term historical view of India's contributions to the global economy. In particular, it covers how British colonial rule may have "broken" the economy in ways that have yet to be repaired.

Read this article about post-colonial India and how it set out to modernize politically. It covers an entire political history, specifically focusing on the time between Indian independence and the present, and compares India's modernization to China's. See if you agree.

Read this article about how India modernized industrially and technologically. These processes also had some detrimental effects economically and environmentally.