Social Marketing
Understanding consumer behaviour
The importance of understanding attitudes
One of the most important phenomena for a social marketer to understand is that of 'attitudes'. Having said this, this is not a straightforward issue as there is much disagreement about the nature of attitudes, how they are formed, and how they determine our behaviour. Attitude theory research is a key focus for consumer behaviour theorists and derives from the field of psychology.
There are many definitions of attitude, for example, 'the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some symbol or object or aspect of his world in a favourable manner'.
There are also differences of opinion as to what comprises an attitude. The three main elements on which theorists focus are:
- Cognitive component (beliefs/knowledge).
- Affective component (feelings).
- Conative component (behavioural).
In other words we believe/know (cognitive component) something, for example, recycling is good for the environment. We also believe that looking after the environment is a good thing. This forms our positive feelings (affect) towards recycling behaviour. We are therefore more likely to intend to engage in recycling behaviour (conative factor) and ultimately to engage in the behaviour itself.
Differences of opinion relate to which of the three components are actually part of attitude, i.e.:
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Some view attitude as a relatively simple unidimensional construct referring to the amount of affect for or against a psychological object in other words the feeling element only).
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Others describe attitude as a two dimensional construct including the cognitive and affective component.
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Others describe attitude as a complex multi-dimensional concept consisting of an affective, cognitive and behavioural component.
In one sense the above distinction does not matter too much since all approaches recognise the three components; it is important, however, when we come to measure attitudes to be clear as to what exactly is being measured. The most important issue for us at the moment is to be aware of the three components and how they combine to determine behaviour. Most of the research in this area is based on Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action described in the model below.
The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour
The extended Fishbein model, based on the theory of reasoned action, includes the following components to explain behaviour.
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Attitude to the behaviour comprising:
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a. The strength of the expectancy (beliefs) that the act will be followed by a consequence.
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b. The value of that consequence to the individual.
This is the basic expectancy value approach. Returning to our previous smoking cessation example, if we expect that stopping smoking will result in health, wealth and happiness – and this is important to us – then we will develop a positive affect towards the behaviour of stopping smoking. There is, however, another dimension.
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Subjective norms (i.e. the socio-cultural norms of other persons, groups or society) and the individuals' desire/motivation to conform to these norms. Consequently, peer group and other pressures may reduce or enhance our attitudes towards stopping smoking. Ajzen later included:
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Perceived control (i.e. situational or internal obstacles to performing the behaviour). This addition has resulted in a new model – 'the theory of planned behaviour'. Consequently, the power of addiction may impact on our attitudes and prevent us from trying to stop smoking.
A key question, for both commercial and social marketers, is: Why do actual behaviour and reported intentions often differ?
As discussed earlier, the purpose of social marketing is to effect behaviour change. Attitude models often record behavioural intentions rather than actual behaviour. One of the purposes of research is to assess how people will behave in the future, for example in response to new stimuli such as additional resources – help lines, clinics, etc. One of the problems, however, is that reported behavioural intentions often don't match up to actual behaviour.
Activity 4
List the reasons why you think that what people say they will do in answer to research questions is often very different to what they actually do.
Discussion
There are many reasons. These may include:
- Reasons due to the research process, e.g. telling the researcher what they want to know out of politeness.
- Reasons due to the individual's wish to show themselves to be rational or a 'good citizen'. They might, therefore, overstate intentions to reduce environmental emissions and understate intentions to use private transport.
- They may genuinely intend to engage in the behaviour but situational factors intervene, e.g. they may not have the time to travel by public transport or there may be a bus strike.