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Course Syllabus | Course Syllabus | |
1.1: Scientific Theory, Law, and Models | An Introduction to Physics | Read this text, which introduces these concepts. |
1.2: Physical Quantities and Units | Physical Quantities and Units | Read this text to review these physical quantities and units. Make sure you are familiar with the prefixes, symbols, values, and examples in Table 1.2. We will use them frequently during this course. |
1.3: Converting S.I. and Customary U.S. Units | Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis | Read this text for examples of how to calculate physical quantities and units of measurement. |
Metric Units, Converting Units, Significant Figures | This lecture accompanies what you just read. At the end of the video, Greg Clements discusses significant figures which we cover in the next section. |
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1.4: Uncertainty, Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures | Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures | Read this text to learn more about uncertainty, accuracy, precision and significant figures. |
1.5: Scientific Notation | Review of Scientific Notation | This video describes how to convert between standard and scientific notation. Pay special attention to how Jennifer determines the exponent when writing out the scientific notation. |
Applying Scientific Notation | This video shows some practical applications to scientific notation. Pay close attention to the various ways of writing the same number. |
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Converting Scientific Notation to Standard Notation | Watch this video to review converting scientific notation to standard notation. |
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2.1: Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems | Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems | Read this text to learn more about the difference between a scalar and vector quantity. |
2.2: Instantaneous and Average Values for Physical Quantities | Time, Velocity, and Speed | Read this text which explains what we mean when we talk about instantaneous versus average time, velocity, and speed. Note that we will explore the calculations you see in this text in detail in Section 2.4 below. For now, make sure you understand what these concepts mean before we begin discussing distance and displacement next. |
2.3: Distance and Displacement | Displacement | Read this text, which discusses position and the difference between distance and displacement. |
Distance and Displacement as Scalar Vectors | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Displacement vs. Distance | This video demonstrates the difference between distance and displacement, and their associated graphs with time. |
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Displacement Time Graphs | Watch this video to learn how to differentiate distance and displacement, and graph them with respect to time. |
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Vectors and Scalars | Watch this video to review scalars, vectors, and how they connect with distance and displacement. |
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2.4: Speed and Velocity | Time, Velocity, and Speed | Now, let's return to this text which you read in Section 2.2, to study the calculations in more detail. Pay attention to Figure 2.10 and Figure 2.11 which show examples of how to calculate displacement, distance, average speed, and velocity. |
More on Speed and Velocity | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Speed and Velocity vs. Distance and Displacement | Watch this video to discover how average speed and velocity relate to distance and displacement. |
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2.5: Motion with Constant Acceleration | Acceleration | Read this text. Pay attention to the examples which show how to solve equations of motion. These include how to calculate displacement, given average velocity and time, and how to calculate final velocity, given initial velocity, acceleration, and time. |
More on Acceleration | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension | Read this text for more examples and practice on how to solve motion equations for constant acceleration. |
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Average Acceleration | Watch this video to get a better understanding of acceleration and how it is graphed with respect to time. |
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Acceleration Equations | Watch this video to learn how to analyze acceleration with equations. |
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2.6: Falling Objects | Falling Objects | Read this text for more about falling objects, gravity, and freefall. We will discuss how to calculate the examples here in the next section. |
Vertical Motion in Free Fall | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Zero Gravity Demonstration | Watch this live demonstration which takes place at zero gravity at the end of the last Apollo 15 moonwalk. |
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2.7: Calculating the Kinematic Quantities of Objects in Constant Acceleration | Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free Fall | As you read, pay attention to the relevant equations in the box Kinematics Equations for Objects in Free Fall where Acceleration = −g Note that because the motion is free fall, a is simply replaced with (here, is the acceleration due to gravity, ) and the direction of motion is the direction, rather than the direction. When calculating the position and velocity of an object in freefall, we need to consider two different conditions. First, the object can be thrown up as it enters freefall. For example, you could throw a baseball up and watch it fall back down. Complete the steps in Example 2.14. After you review the solution, pay attention to the graphs in Figure 2.40. You can throw an object directly downward as it enters freefall, such as when you throw a baseball directly down from a second-floor window. Then, complete the steps in Example 2.15. Notice that Figure 2.42 compares what is happening in Example 2.14 and Example 2.15. It is important to understand the difference between an object that is thrown up and enters free fall, versus an object that is directly thrown down. We can often use experimental data to calculate constants, such as . In Example 2.16, we determine the acceleration due to gravity constant () from experimental data. |
Constant Acceleration Equations | Watch this video for details on how kinematic equations were derived. |
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More on Free Fall | Watch this video for details on kinematic equations and its relationship with freefall. |
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Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics | Read this text for a step-by-step guide on how to solve problems of constant acceleration using kinematic equations. |
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Kinematic Equations in Constant Acceleration | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Displacement with Constant Acceleration | This video goes into more detail about constant acceleration. |
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2.8: Graphical Analysis | Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion | Read this text for an introduction on graphical position, velocity, and acceleration with regards to one another. As you read, pay attention to Figure 2.46 which is an example of a linear graph is the graph of position versus time when acceleration is zero. See an example of this type of graph in Figure 2.47. In this graph, we can determine the slope by picking two different points on the line, taking the change in y-value, and dividing it by the change in x-value between those two points. In this case, the unit for slope is m/s, which is the unit for velocity. Therefore, the slope for a graph of position versus time with zero acceleration is the average velocity of that object. See how to calculate the average velocity of an object from this type of graph in Example 2.17. When acceleration is a non-zero constant, the graph of position versus time is no longer linear. You can see an example of this type of graph in Figure 2.48. Note that while the position versus time graph is not linear, the velocity versus time graph is linear. In the position versus time graph, the slope at any given point is the instantaneous velocity of the object. The instantaneous slope can be determined by drawing a tangent line at the desired point along the graph and determining slope. Pay attention to the tangent lines drawn in Figure 2.48 (a). To determine instantaneous velocity at a given time when acceleration is a non-zero constant, take a look at Example 2.18. We can determine instantaneous velocities at multiple points along a position-time graph with constant non-zero acceleration and make a table relating these instantaneous velocities to the specified time along the x-axis where we found them. Then, we can use that table to plot velocity versus time. This process is demonstrated in Figure 2.48 (a) and (b). The slope of this linear graph has units , which are acceleration units. Therefore, the slope of the velocity versus time graph is acceleration. |
Interpreting Velocity Graphs | Watch this video for details regarding the velocity versus time graphs and how they relate to acceleration. |
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3.1: Introduction to Kinematics in Two Dimensions using Vectors | Kinematics in Two Dimensions | Read this text, which provides a general overview of the concept of kinematics in two dimensions. |
Unit Vectors and Engineering Notation | To solve two-dimensional kinematic problems, we first need to understand how two-dimensional motion is represented and how to break it up into two one-dimensional components. We also need to understand vectors. A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude
(amount) and direction. Often in texts, vectors are denoted by being bolded or having a small arrow written above the vector name. |
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3.2: Adding and Subtracting Vectors | Vector Addition and Subtraction | As you read, pay attention to the worked examples: using the head-to-tail method to add multiple vectors in Example 3.1 and using the head-to-tail method to subtract vectors in Example 3.2. |
Vector Addition Using the Graphical Method | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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3.3. Adding Vectors Analytically: Determining the Components, Magnitude, and Direction of a Vector | Analytical Methods for Vector Addition and Subtraction | Read this text, which explains how we need to resolve vectors into their component vectors in the x-y coordinate system when using analytical methods to solve vector problems. See Figure 3.26 for an example of a vector that has been resolved into its x and y components. Here, the vector A has a magnitude A and an angle 𝛳. We can break the vector down into two components: Ax and Ay. We know that . However, we must use trigonometry to determine how the scalar or magnitude part of each vector relates to one another. You do not need to know the inner workings of trigonometry to deal with vectors analytically, but you need to understand their basic functions and know how to input a sine and cosine function into a calculator. The magnitudes of the component vectors relate to the resultant vector this way: The general rule is: use the sine function for components of the vector that are opposite of the triangle as the angle, and use the cosine function for components of the vector that are adjacent on the triangle to the angle. For example, in Figure 3.27, you can see that the y-component of the vector is on the opposite side of the triangle as the angle so the sine function is used to find the y-component, as in the previous equation. Sometimes you are given the component vectors and need to determine the magnitude and angle of the resultant vector. To do this, we again use the trigonometry of right triangles: The angle obtained by using the tangent equation is such that the opposite component of the vector is the y-component, and the adjacent component is the x-component. Also, pay attention to the example of a resultant vector calculated from its component vectors in Figure 3.29. |
More on Vector Addition | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Vector Components on a Grid | This video discusses how vectors are represented as components in the x- and y-axes. |
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Projectiles at an Angle | This video gives an example of how we use components representing vectors in the x- and y-axes in two-dimensional kinematic problems. |
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Visualizing Vectors in Two Dimensions | This video describes how to convert vectors from magnitude-direction form into component form, and vice versa. |
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Unit Vector Notation | This video demonstrates how to add vectors using the graphical and analytical methods. |
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3.4: Projectile Motion and Trajectory | Projectile Motion | This reading discusses how vectors are represented as components in the x- and y-axes. |
More on Projectile Motion | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Another Way to Determine Time In Air | Watch this video to see another way to solve for the time of a projectile in air. Since time transcends the x- and y-components of a trajectory, it is important to know how to calculate time so you can use it to connect motion in the two dimensions. |
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Horizontally-Launched Projectiles | Watch this video to learn how to solve for a horizontally-launched projectile, with no initial y-component to velocity. |
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Launching and Landing at Different Elevations | Watch this video on how to solve kinematic equations for the x and y directions of motion, using the same procedures as for a horizontally-launched projectile. |
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Total Displacement for a Projectile | Watch this video for another example of projectile motion and how to solve for quantities using kinematic equations for both dimensions. |
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Total Final Velocity for a Projectile | Watch these two videos on how to solve for the total final velocity of the projectile at the end of its path. Note that the presenter makes a small mistake which they correct in the second video. |
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Projectiles on an Incline | Watch this video on how to solve projectile motion problems using kinematic equations for trajectories that start at an incline. |
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4.1: Newton's First Law of Motion | Newton's First Law of Motion and Inertia | Read this text, which explains how we define mass as the amount of matter in an object. We measure mass in units, such as kilograms. Mass does not depend on the strength of the gravitational field and therefore does not depend on the location where it
is being measured. |
Force and Newton's Laws | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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The Historical Context | This video provides a brief explanation on the thought process behind Newton's First Law and some historical context to the Law of Inertia. |
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More on Newton's First Law of Motion | This video provides a more detailed explanation behind the concepts of Newton's First Law. |
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4.2: Newton's Second Law of Motion | Newton's Second Law of Motion | This video reviews how Newton's Second Law was derived using concepts that are familiar from previous units. |
Using Newton's Second Law | As you read, pay attention to examples 4.1 and 4.2, which use Newton's Second Law of Motion to calculate acceleration and force in objects in motion. |
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F=ma | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Examples of Newton's Second Law | This video discusses Newton's Second Law and solves a few sample problems. It delves into a more detailed analysis of solving for Force, Mass, and Acceleration of dynamic situations. |
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More on Newton's Second Law | This video presents additional sample problems involving Newton's Second Law. |
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4.3: Free-Body Diagrams | The Concept of Force | Read this text to see examples of how to draw a free-body diagram like we saw earlier in this unit. The text also discusses force as a vector and introduces a way to visualize multiple forces acting on an object: the free-body diagram. Notice the free-body diagrams drawn for specific examples in Figures 4.5 and 4.6. |
4.4: Newton's Third Law of Motion | Symmetry in Forces | As you read, pay attention to the example which applies Newton's Third Law of Motion to a swimmer in a pool in Figure 4.9. When the swimmer kicks off the wall of the pool to begin swimming, the swimmer exerts a force toward the wall. Because of the Third Law, the wall also exerts an opposing force back on the swimmer. The force by the wall on the swimmer is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction of the force exerted by the swimmer on the wall. In the other axis, gravity exerts
a force toward the earth on the swimmer, but interestingly enough, the swimmer is also exerting an equal amount of force on the Earth pulling it up toward them. These are both examples of Newton's Third Law in action. See another example of determining
the forces in a given system in Example 4.3. |
Newton's Third Law and F=ma | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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More on Newton's Third Law | Watch this video for another presentation of Newton's Third Law. |
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Examples of Newton's Third Law | Watch these two videos for examples of action-reaction pairs of forces applied between two objects in contact with each other. They will help you solve problems using Newton's Third Law. |
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4.5: Solving Problems Using Newton's Second Law: Weight | Problem-Solving Strategies | As you read, note that we can use Newton's Second Law of Motion to solve problems that involve forces. You should follow the following four steps when solving these types of problems. |
Further Applications of Newton's Laws of Motion | As you read this text pay attention to the worked examples of how to solve dynamics problems using the strategies we discussed previously. See examples 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9. We will discuss each of the forces involved soon. |
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Identifying and Labeling Types of Forces | Watch this video from 7:24 to 8:35 for a brief explanation of the force due to gravity that we call weight. |
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Mass and Weight | What is the difference between mass and weight? This video will go into the differences of the two concepts and situations where knowing these differences will be useful. |
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Characteristics of Forces | This video demonstrates the characteristics of the forces of tension, friction, weight, and normal when solving problems related to forces. |
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Gravity and Weight | This video explores gravity, one of the fundamental forces. The narrator explains gravitational interactions in terms of the gravitational field and describes when flat-earth-gravity is a valid approximation. |
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Resultant Forces | This video explores types of forces: normal contact force, tension, friction, air resistance, magnetic force, electrostatic force, and gravitational force. It explains that force is a push or a pull that acts on an object. Forces are vector quantities because they have both magnitude and direction, and so can be represented by an arrow. Scalar quantities have only magnitude and no direction. When several forces act on an object they can be replaced by a single force that has the same effect. This single force is called the resultant force. |
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4.6: Newton's Law of Gravity | Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation | Read this text to see an example of how two objects exert gravitational forces on each other in a straight line in Figure 6.21. The force between two objects is directly related to the product of the masses and is inversely proportional to the distance
between the objects squared. For two objects with masses and and radius , we can write this as , where is the gravitational constant, |
Introduction to Gravity | ||
Introduction to Newton's Law of Gravitation | Watch these two videos for a demonstration of using the Universal Law of Gravitation for finding the local acceleration on Earth's surface and of a space station near Earth. |
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Gravity for Astronauts in Orbit | Watch this video for detailed analysis of gravity as it applies to astronauts flying high above the atmosphere. |
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Would a Brick or Feather Fall Faster? | Watch this video to analyze why things fall at the same rate. It uses the Universal Law of Gravitation to prove constant acceleration on Earth for all objects. |
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4.7: Solving Problems Using Newton's Second Law: Normal Force | Normal Force | Read this section, which discusses normal force. |
Identifying and Labeling Types of Forces | Watch this video until 4:37. |
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More on Normal Force | This video explains normal force: the force of contact. Again, "normal" essentially means perpendicular. The opposing force is the normal force. |
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Normal Force and Contact Force | This video introduces the concept of normal force and compares it to the weight of an object. |
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Normal Force in an Elevator | This video discusses the concept of normal force as it deviates from being exactly equal to the weight of an object, such as inside an accelerating elevator. |
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Multiple Forces Alongside Normal Force | These two videos describe more complicated situations dealing with multiple forces (some going diagonal) accompanying normal force. |
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Ice Accelerating Down An Incline | This video puts the forces we have discussed together, as in the situation of an inclined plane. |
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4.8: Solving Problems Using Newton's Second Law: Tension | Tension | As you read, pay attention to the example of tension in Figure 4.15 as it talks about how tension is distributed along a rope carrying a weight. |
Identifying and Labeling Types of Forces | Watch this video from 6:34 to 7:03. |
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Tension Forces | This video explains how tension forces are directed in a simple situation and how it fits in with other classical forces. |
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4.9: Solving Problems Using Newton's Second Law: Friction | Identifying and Labeling Types of Forces | Watch this video from 4:37 to 6:34. |
Friction | The text explains the fundamentals of friction that we discussed earlier, but in more detail. |
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Kinetic and Static Friction Forces | This video demonstrates the difference between kinetic and static friction. |
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Friction and Force from Springs | This lecture accompanies what you just read. It talks about the equations of kinetic and static friction forces, and the concepts behind friction itself. Watch the video until the 6:12 mark, where Clements begins discussing springs and other material we will cover in another Saylor course, PHYS102 Introduction to Electromagnetism. |
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Comparing Static and Kinetic Friction | Watch this video to learn about the differences between static and kinetic friction, and why maximum static friction is generally stronger than kinetic friction. |
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Examples of Static and Kinetic Friction | This video explains how to solve basic friction problems involving static and kinetic cases. |
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5.1: Centripetal Force | Centripetal Acceleration | Read this text, which presents more explanation on the topic of centripetal acceleration. Pay attention to Figure 6.8 which shows an example of centripetal acceleration. In this example, a disk is rotating at a constant speed. As the disk rotates, the velocity vector at any given point on the disk changes because the direction changes. As shown in the free-body diagram at the top of the figure, the velocity vectors add to make a net velocity vector toward the center of the disk. This leads to centripetal acceleration because there is a net change in acceleration toward the disk. Centripetal forces assume the equation . Therefore, whatever equation characterized the classical forces in Unit 4 can also be related to a situation by its centripetal force equation just given. |
Circular Motion and Centripetal Acceleration | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Centripetal Force | Read this text, which demonstrates using the centripetal force equation in conjunction with the classical forces we learned in the previous unit: weight, normal force, tension, and friction. |
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Tennis Ball on a String | Watch this video for a demonstration of centripetal force. |
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More on Centripetal Force | This lecture accompanies what you just read. |
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Visualizing Centripetal Acceleration | Watch this video to see how the equation for centripetal force is derived. |
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More on Centripetal Force And Acceleration | Watch this video as it goes into the concept of centripetal acceleration and centripetal force. |
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Example: Loop de Loop | Watch these two videos for examples of how to use normal force and gravity as a centripetal force in a loop-da-loop problem. |
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5.2: Centripetal Force and the Universal Law of Gravitation | Satellites and Kepler's Laws | Read this text, which includes visual diagrams of Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, which describe the motion of planets around the sun. We can also apply these laws to explain the motion of satellites around planets.
We can use Kepler's Third Law to solve problems to determine the period for planetary or satellite orbits. See a worked example of using the equation from Kepler's Third Law to determine the period of a satellite in Example 6.7. Pay attention to the derivation of Kepler's Third Law using the concept of centripetal forces. |
Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion | This video accompanies the text on Kepler's Three Laws. |
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5.3: Angular Position, Velocity, and Acceleration | Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity | Read this text. To understand circular or rotational motion, picture a spinning disk, such as the picture of a CD in Figure 6.2. This figure shows a CD with a line drawn from the center to the edge. All of the points along this line travel the same angle, in the same amount of time, as the CD spins. We call this the rotational angle, which is defined as . We call the distance along the circumference traveled () the arc length, and we call the radius of the circular motion () the radius of curvature. When describing angles, we often use the unit radian, abbreviated as rad. We define radians as 1 revolution = rad. Radians are the standard unit for physics problems, but we can convert radians to the more familiar degrees for convenience. Pay attention to Table 6.1 for conversions between radians and degrees. We define angular velocity (or rotational velocity), (the Greek letter omega), as the rate at which the angle changes while an object is rotating. We can write it as , where is the change in angle and is the time it takes for the angle to change that amount. We can relate angular velocity to linear velocity using the relation , with being the radius of curvature. Pay attention to the derivation of how angular velocity relates to linear velocity in equations 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9. |
Angular Acceleration | We define angular acceleration as the change in angular velocity with respect to time. The equation is , where represents angular acceleration. As you read, pay attention to Example 10.1, which shows how to calculate the angular acceleration of a bike wheel. In the first part of the problem, we calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel given the change in angular velocity and time. In the second part of the problem, we calculate the time needed to stop an already spinning wheel given angular deceleration as initial velocity, using the same angular acceleration equation. See a diagram of a rotating object showing the relationship between linear and angular velocity in Figure 10.3. |
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5.4: Kinematics of Rotational Motion | Kinematics of Rotational Motion | Read this text to see additional worked examples of how to solve problems involving the kinematics of rotational motion. Example 10.3 shows how to calculate the kinematics of an accelerating fishing reel. Here, equation 10.19 is used to determine how the angular velocity changes with time. This result is used to calculate linear speed. Example 10.4 is an example where the fishing reel decelerates. Using equation 10.19, we solve for time rather than angular velocity. To see more of these types of problems, review Examples 10.5 and 10.6. |
6.1: Conditions for Equilibrium | The First Condition for Equilibrium | As you read, pay attention to the illustration of static equilibrium in Figure 9.3 and the illustration of dynamic equilibrium in Figure 9.4. An object in static equilibrium is completely motionless. An object in dynamic equilibrium is moving at constant velocity. The study of statics is the study of objects that are in equilibrium. Two important conditions must be met for an object to be in equilibrium. First, the net force on the object must be zero. Secondly, a rotating object does not experience rotational acceleration. That is, a rotating object can be in equilibrium if its rotational velocity does not change. |
Static Equilibrium, Torque, and Stability | Watch this video, which accompanies what you just read. |
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6.2: Torque | Rotational Inertia | As you read, pay attention to the diagram of an object rotating on a frictionless table in Figure 10.11. We can see the radius from the center of the table (the pivot point) and the mass at the end of the radius. When solving dynamics problems, we first need to identify the system and draw a free-body diagram of all the forces acting upon the system. Once the forces acting upon the system are defined, we can use the torque equation and angular acceleration equations to solve the problem: , where is the moment of inertia, is torque, and is the rotational acceleration due to the torque. Example 10.7 shows how to use these equations to determine the angular acceleration of a person pushing a merry-go-round. Here, the first step is to calculate torque. The next step is to calculate the moment of inertia. Finally, torque and moment of inertia are used to calculate the angular acceleration on the merry-go-round. |
Rotational Kinematics and Dynamics | Watch this video, which accompanies what you just read. Note that Greg Clements discusses the moment of inertia or rotational inertia, and Figure 9.6 which is in our next reading. |
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The Second Condition for Equilibrium | We define the moment of inertia, or rotational inertia, as for a point mass, where is the mass of the object being rotated and is the radius from the pivot point to the end of the mass. However, the moment of inertia for a distribution of mass that makes a shape, such as a rotating cylinder or sphere, applies different equations. For example, for a solid sphere rotating about a central axis going through the core of the sphere, the moment of inertia is where is the mass of the entire sphere and is the sphere's radius. In Section 6.1, we said that an object in equilibrium must have no rotational acceleration. We can restate this by saying that an object in equilibrium must have a torque of zero. When no torque is acting on a system, no rotational acceleration is given to the system, and it remains in equilibrium. As you read, pay attention to Figure 9.6, which shows the torque on a rotating plank of wood secured at a pivot point at one end. This diagram shows how the direction of the force impacts the rotation of the plank of wood. When the force is perpendicular to the length of the plank of wood, the plank experiences torque, and it rotates. When the force is parallel to the length of the plank of wood, it does not experience a net force and therefore does not rotate or experience torque. When the force is at an angle other than 90° from the length of the plank, the plank experiences less torque than if the force was at 90° from the plank's length. |
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Moment of Inertia | This video discusses the concept of moment of inertia. |
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The Race Between a Ring and a Disc | This video offers demonstrations of rotational inertia, the property of an object that deals with the resistance to a change in the state of rotational motion. This depends on the mass of the object and the way that mass is distributed from the axis of rotation. |
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6.3: Applications of Statics | Torques on a Seesaw | As you read, pay attention to Example 9.1, which shows how to do a statics problem. Here, children are balanced on a seesaw. We are given information about the masses of both children, and how far from the pivot point one child is sitting. We are asked to determine where the second child is sitting to balance. In Figure 9.8 we see that the children are balanced and therefore are at equilibrium. The free-body diagram shows that there is no net force, and no net rotational acceleration. To determine the distance of the second child from the pivot point, we use the torque equation, and set torque equal to zero. To determine the upward balancing force from the pivot point, we use the fact that net force equals zero to solve for the individual force at the pivot point. |
Applications of Statics | As you read, notice that Example 9.2 shows a similar worked example of a statics problem. Here, a pole vaulter holds a pole at one end and we are asked to calculate the forces from each of the pole vaulter's hands. We take the same approach as in Example 9.1. |
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7.1: Calculating Work and Force | Introduction to Work | This video defines and explains the uses of work in the context of physics applications. |
Work Example Problems | This video demonstrates how to solve work equations and some of their limitations. |
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7.2: Work, Potential Energy, and Linear Kinetic Energy | Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem | As you read, pay attention to the example of the forces on a box going across a conveyor belt in Figure 7.4. In this figure, we see different forces acting on the box. First, gravitational force is always present, which affects the weight () of the box. The normal force () balances the weight of the box. There is the applied force of the moving conveyor belt going to the right. Lastly, there is a horizontal frictional force from the rollers on the conveyor belt going back to the left. The weight and normal force cancel out. Therefore, the net force is the applied force minus the frictional force. See a worked example of calculating the kinetic energy for this box on a conveyor belt in Example 7.3. Work and kinetic energy are related in that work is the change in kinetic energy of an object. This is called the work-energy theorem. The work-energy theorem states that the net work on a system is the change of . That is: , where is mass, is final velocity, and is initial velocity. See a worked example in which the net force is calculated and used to determine the net work for the same system of the box on the conveyor belt in Example 7.4. |
Work, Kinetic Energy, and Potential Energy | Watch this video, which accompanies what you just read. Greg Clements introduces the chapter and discusses how to calculate work. |
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More on the Work-Energy Theorem | Watch this video for a demonstration on how to use the work equation. Jennifer Cash also introduces how work relates to the change in kinetic energy. |
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More on Work and Energy | Watch this video for another take on the work equation. |
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Work as the Transfer of Energy | Watch this video for more on how work is a transfer, or kinetic energy. |
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Example of Work and Energy | This video presents an example of how to use the work-energy equation to solve problems. |
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7.3: Conservative Forces and Potential Energy | Non-Conservative Forces | As you read, pay attention to Figure 7.15 for a comparison of conservative and non-conservative forces. In Figure 7.15 (a), a rock is being "bounced" on an ideal spring with no friction. The mechanical energy does not change, and the rock will continue bouncing indefinitely. In Figure 7.15 (b), the rock is thrown and lands on the ground. When it hits the ground, its kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy and sound. The rock can not "bounce" back up because its mechanical energy is not conserved. Gravity is a good example of a conservative force we use a lot in physics. Gravitational force is a conservative force because the work gravity does on an object does not depend on the path the object takes. Consequently, gravity is a good candidate to add into the work-energy theorem, where work is only done by gravity: Since the acceleration due to gravity is simply and the direction of motion due to gravity is in the y-axis, we can further build the equation that represents work due to gravity: Previously, we have discovered that work is also equal to the change in kinetic energy (see Section 7.2). So, we can now combine our equation for work due to gravity and our equation for work with respect to the change in kinetic energy: . The in the equation is called the gravitational potential energy. We define potential energy as stored energy due to a system's position: . |
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy | An example of an object with high potential energy is a compressed or stretched spring. When you let go of the compressed or stretched spring, the spring will release its potential energy as kinetic energy and go back to its usual shape. To calculate the potential energy of a spring, , we use the equation , where is the spring constant and is displacement from the spring's equilibrium. Read this text to see an example of a spring being stretched in Figure 7.10. The figure shows the work and potential energy associated with this. Mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of a system. Conservation of Mechanical Energy states that the sum of potential energy () and kinetic energy () is constant for a given system if only conservative forces act upon the system. We can write this in two different forms: or . The second version of the equation can be more useful in describing changes from initial conditions ( and ) to final conditions ( and ). See the derivation of the conservation of mechanical energy from the work-energy theorem in equations 7.43, 7.44, 7.45, 7.46, 7.47, and 7.48. See a worked example of using conservation of mechanical energy to determine an object's speed in Example 7.8. In this example, we use the conservation of mechanical energy and the definitions of potential and kinetic energy to determine velocity. In these types of problems, it can be helpful to make a list of the information given in the problem to help determine what variable you can solve for. |
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Conservative Forces | Watch this video to learn more about what constitutes a conservative force. |
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More on Non-Conservative Forces | Watch this video to learn more about what constitutes a non-conservative force. |
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7.4: Conservation of Energy | Conservation of Energy | As you read, pay attention to the section Problem Solving Strategies for Energy for a step-by-step guide for solving these types of problems. |
The Equation for Conservation of Mechanical Energy | Watch this video to learn about the conservation of energy equation in a lecture presentation format. |
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More on Conservation of Energy | Watch this video as it demonstrates solving for the conservation of energy equation for an object transitioning from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy. |
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The Equation for Non-Conservative Work | Often, non-conservative forces come into play when dealing with motion. In this case, the conservation of mechanical energy does not hold. Watch the following video and read the following text to learn about how we can modify the conservation of energy equation to account for non-conservative forces. |
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Thermal Energy from Friction | These next two videos demonstrate a typical non-conservative force, friction, as it's used in solving the conservation of energy equation. |
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7.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy | Rotational Kinetic Energy | As you read, pay attention to the diagram of a spinning disk in Figure 10.15. For the disk to spin, work must be done on the disk. The force acting upon the disk must be perpendicular to the radius of the disk, which we know is torque. We also know torque is related to moment of inertia. We can relate the work done on the disk to moment of inertia using the equation . Example 10.8 shows how to calculate the net work for a rotating disk using this work equation. In the second part of the example, the rotational velocity is determined using the equation for rotational acceleration and moment of inertia. Lastly, it uses this equation to calculate the rotational kinetic energy. |
Deriving Rotational Kinetic Energy | Watch this video to learn about the fundamental derivation of rotational kinetic energy and how it relates to linear kinetic energy. |
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More on Rotational Kinetic Energy | This video discusses the formulation of rotational kinetic energy and its relation to linear kinetic energy from a more mathematical point of view, and gives an example of how to use the rotational kinetic energy equation. |
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7.6: Power | Power | We define power as the rate at which work is done. We can write this as , where is work and is the duration of the work being done. The unit for power is the watt, W. One watt equals one joule per second. Higher power means more work is done in a shorter time. This also means that more energy is given off in a shorter time. For example, a 60 W light bulb uses 60 J of work in a second, and also gives off 60 J of radiant and heat energy every second. |
More on Power | This video provides a brief introduction to the concept of power. |
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Work, Energy, and Power in Humans | Read these texts to learn how energy is transferred and transformed in humans and in society. |
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8.1: Linear Momentum | Linear Momentum and Force | This text goes into the concepts of linear momentum, impulse, and how force is used to change momentum over time. |
Momentum, Impulse, and the Conservation of mV | This video discusses some of the concepts we will explore later in this unit. |
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More on Momentum | This video gives another way of thinking about momentum. |
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8.2: Momentum and Newton's Second Law | Momentum and Newton's Second Law | As you read, pay attention to how we can derive from the Second Law in terms of momentum in equations 8.9, 8.10, 8.11, and 8.12. Furthermore, we define impulse as change in momentum. Using Newton's Second Law of Motion, we can write this as . See how to use Newton's Second Law in terms of momentum in Example 8.2. This problem calculates the force applied to a tennis ball: there is a change of velocity of the ball but no change in mass, so pay special attention to how change in momentum is calculated in equation 8.14. When we calculate impulse, we assume the net force is constant during the time we are interested in. In reality, force is rarely constant. For example, in Example 8.2, we assumed the force on the tennis ball was constant over time. In reality, the force on the tennis ball probably changed from the beginning to the end of the swing of the tennis racquet. Nevertheless, the change in force was probably not significant, and we assume it is constant to make our calculations easier. |
Impulse | Read this text as it expands on linear momentum and Newton's Second Law to define a new quantity, impulse. |
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More on Impulse | Also This video introduces the concept of impulse. |
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Example of Impulse and Momentum in Dodgeball | This video describes how to use the impulse-force equation to solve problems. |
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Force vs. Time Graphs | This video presents a graphical analysis of force and time and how they relate to impulse. |
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8.3: Elastic, Inelastic, and Totally Inelastic Collisions | Elastic Collisions in One Dimension | As you read, pay attention to the diagram of two metal boxes interacting in an elastic collision on an ice surface in Figure 8.6. |
Conserving Momentum in Elastic Collisions | Watch this video, which accompanies what you just read. |
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What are Inelastic and Elastic Collisions? | Unlike an elastic collision, an inelastic collision is a collision where the internal kinetic energy is not conserved. In inelastic collisions, some kinetic energy of the colliding objects is lost to friction, heat, or even work. Inelastic collisions are what we mostly observe in the real world. Watch this video for an overview of inelastic and elastic collisions. |
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Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension | Read this text. As we learned in the previous video, in reality, no collisions are perfectly elastic because some kinetic energy is always "lost" by being converted to other forms of energy. Another example of an elastic collision is if two balls collide on a smooth icy surface. Because the ice has almost no friction, little kinetic energy would be lost to friction. See an example of two blocks experiencing a totally inelastic collision in Figure 8.8.
See a good example of an inelastic collision in Figure 8.9. In this example, a hockey goalie stops a puck in the net. Although the ice surface is essentially frictionless, some kinetic energy of the puck is converted to heat and sound as the goalie stops it. A totally inelastic collision (also called a perfectly inelastic collision) is an inelastic collision where the objects "stick together" upon colliding. |
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Conserving Momentum in Inelastic Collisions in Two Dimensions | Watch this video, which accompanies what you just read. |
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Elastic and Inelastic Collisions | This video compares elastic and inelastic collisions. |
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Perfectly Inelastic Collisions | This video looks more closely at the case for perfectly inelastic collisions. What makes something perfectly inelastic is that the objects stick together after the collision. This means they have the same final velocity. |
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Elastic and Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension | Watch this video for another explanation of elastic and inelastic collisions in one dimension. |
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8.4: Solving Problems Involving Conservation of Linear Momentum in Collisions | Elastic Collisions in One Dimension | As you read, pay attention to Example 8.4. In this example, one of the objects is initially at rest (its velocity equals zero), so it does not have an initial momentum. This lets us simplify the conservation of energy momentum equations. Then, by using the equations for conservation of energy and momentum, we can solve for final velocity after collision. |
Calculating Velocity | Read this text, which shows that we can also solve for final velocities after inelastic collisions. In these problems, it is important to remember that kinetic energy is not conserved but momentum is conserved. In Example 8.5(a), the conservation of momentum equation is used to determine the final velocity of the object (the hockey goalie) in an inelastic collision. In inelastic collisions, some kinetic energy is converted to other forms of energy. The energy difference before and after collision can be calculated to determine how much kinetic energy was lost. In Example 8.5(b), the amount of energy lost is calculated. The total kinetic energy in the system is calculated before and after collision based on the mass and velocities of the objects. The difference in kinetic energy shows how much kinetic energy was converted to other forms of energy during the collision. Example 8.6 is similar. |
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Linear Momentum and the Conservation of Momentum | This video gives an overall overview of linear momentum, impulse, and the conservation of momentum law. |
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Example: Bouncing Fruit Colliding | This video gives an example of using the conservation of momentum law to solve collision problems (problems that deal with two objects combining). |
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Example: An Ice Skater Throws a Ball | This video gives an example of using the conservation of momentum to solve explosion problems (problems that deal with two objects separating from each other). |
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Two-Dimensional Momentum | These videos expand on the conservation of momentum law for two-dimensional collision problems. Note that the conservation of momentum simply needs to be applied twice: once for each of the two dimensions of motion between objects. |
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8.5: Conservation of Angular Momentum | Angular Momentum and Its Conservation – IP | Read this to understand angular momentum, how torque plays a role, and how angular momentum is conserved without torque. |
Controlling Angular Velocity on a Rotating Stool | This video gives a demonstration and a brief explanation behind the conservation of angular momentum. |
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Conserving Angular Momentum | This video goes into solving for the conservation of angular momentum for a particular situation. |
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Study Guide | PHYS101 Study Guide | |
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