Topic Name Description
Course Introduction Page Course Syllabus
Page Course Terms of Use
1.1.1: Magnification Is the Key: Leeuwenhoek Discovers Animalcules URL Brian J. Ford's "History of the Microscope"

Read this article. Leeuwenhoek crafted superior lenses, which allowed him to observe live microbes, and he also well-documented his observations.
Page Brian J. Ford's "Hooke and Leeuwenhoek Microscopes" and "The Discovery of Sperm"

Watch these videos.
URL Brian J. Ford's "Leeuwenhoek as Experimental Biologist"

Read this article.
URL Jeffrey Noel's "Microbe Types"

Read this page. Leeuwenhoek described representatives of all cellular microbes, including prokaryotes, protists, and fungi. The magnification and resolution of Leeuwenhoek's lenses were not sufficient to describe infectious non-living particles, such viruses, viroids, and prions.
1.1.2: The Modern Microscopes URL Nobelprize.org: "Microscopes"

Read this page, and click on the links "From Thrilling Toy to Important Tool," "Microscopy Time Line," and "Resolving Power Line" to read these pages as well. You can always return to the starter page by hitting the "Back" button on the top right corner of the window. From the main page, click on the links "Phase Contrast Microscopes," "Fluorescence Microscopes," "Transmission Electron Microscopes," and "Scanning Tunneling Microscopes," and study these pages to learn about modern microscope techniques.
1.2: Spontaneous Generation vs. Biogenesis URL University of Wisconsin-Madison: Timothy Paustian's "The Microbial World: Spontaneous Generation"

Read this page. The origin of life has always been fascinating, and the discovery of microbes was also followed by a debate on their origins. Prominent scientists of the time performed experiments to prove or disprove the spontaneous generation of microbes from non-living matter. The debate was going on for about 200 years, when finally Pasteur put off the spontaneous generation theory with a set of smartly designed and carefully performed experiments.
URL Seung Yon Rhee's "Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)"

Read this page. Louis Pasteur was a meticulous experimenter, who believed that hard work should bring results. As Pasteur stated, "Chance favors only the prepared mind."
URL W. H. Freeman's "Pasteur's Experiment"

Read this review of Pasteur's experimental design for testing spontaneous generation. Pasteur's steps of observing, asking a question, making a hypothesis, conducting an experiment, and then accepting (or rejecting) his hypothesis later became codified as the scientific method.
1.3: The Germ Theory URL Harvard University Library: "Robert Koch, 1843 - 1910"

Read this page. Note the significance and limits of Koch's postulates in the identification of the causative agent. Koch took the first photomicrograph of bacteria and the first photomicrograph of bacteria in diseased tissue.
1.4: Antiseptic Procedures URL Zoltán Imre's "Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis"

Read this page. Today, native Hungarians regard Semmelweis as "the savior of mothers"; however, during his life, many rejected his chlorine hand-wash antiseptic procedure. The childbed fever death rates dropped from 18% to 2% when he was in charge in the clinics and increased 10-fold when he was removed. The web media below connects you to a graph that was generated based on Semmelweis' data on childbed fever mortality. The Semmelweis' reflex term is used to describe the irrational rejection of the very obvious.
Page Wikipedia: "Yearly Mortality Rates"

Study this graph, which was generated from the data published by Semmelweis in 1861. In the Wien maternity clinic, pathological anatomy was permitted; thus, physicians and medical students could carry pathogens from cadavers to patients. The Dublin maternity hospital had no medical pathology. Note the death rate drop after the introduction of the chlorine handwash. Wikimedia Commons user Power.corrupts constructed this graph using Semmelweis' data.
URL University of Houston: John Lienhard's "Nightingale's Graph"

Read this page. Nightingale generated the polar-area diagram; she was very successful in communicating her findings with these graphs.
1.5: General Antimicrobial Methods URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Control of Microbial Growth"

Read this chapter to review the methods and techniques used to control the growth of microorganisms. Make sure to click on the "Chapter Continued" link at the bottom of each page to read all 6 pages of the chapter.
1.6.1: Three Domains of Life URL University of California, Berkeley: Ben Waggoner & B.R. Speer's "The Phylogeny of Life"

Read this page to review the three domains of life. Microscopic forms of life can be found in all three domains.
URL Eugene V. Koonin's "The Two Empires and the Three Domains of Life in the Postgenomic Age"

Read this page. Genetic data indicate DNA transfer between species to some extent.
1.6.2: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes URL College of DuPage: Lynn Fancher's "Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells"
Read this page to review the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure.
1.6.3: Archaea URL University of California, Berkeley: Ben Waggoner & B.R. Speer's "Introduction to Archaea"

Read this page. Archaea adapt to diverse environments. Many archaea are extremophile, meaning they live in an environment that seems very hostile to the human eye.
URL University of California, Berkeley: Ben Waggoner & B.R. Speer's "Archaea: Morphology"

Read this page. Note the molecular differences between the bacterial and archaea cell membrane and cell wall.
URL John W. Kimball's "Archaea"

Read this page. Some archaea traits are similar to eukaryotes, while other traits are similar to prokaryotes.
1.6.4: Bacteria URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Structure and Function of Bacterial Cells"

Read this chapter to learn about the structure and function of bacterial cells. Make sure to click on the "Chapter Continued" link at the bottom of each page to move on to subsequent pages.
1.6.5: Eukaryotic Cells URL Fox Valley Technical College: Barbara Liang's "Identifying Eukaryotic Animal Cell Organelles"

Navigate your way through these slides on organelles by pressing "Next," located at the bottom of the slide frame. There are a total of 13 slides. There are eukaryotic microorganisms among fungi and protists.
1.7 Viruses URL David R. Wessner's "The Origins of Viruses"

Read this page. The cell is the smallest unit of life, because it can support its own life including reproduction. Viruses cannot support their own life, but they can hijack the metabolism of specific host cells. Without a specific host cell, a virus cannot grow, change, develop, or multiply.
2.1: Cellular Metabolism URL John Kimball's "Factors Affecting Enzyme Action"

Read this page for a general overview of enzymes and enzyme activity.
URL Essentials of Cell Biology: "Cell Metabolism"

Read this page for a brief review of cell metabolism.
URL The University of Arizona Biology Project: "Energy, Enzymes, and Catalysis Problem Set"

Complete the following problem sets: "Features of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions," "An Energy Barrier Separating Reactions and Products in a Chemical Reaction," "Enzyme Features," and "Understanding Activation Energy." These are multiple-choice assessments. Choosing an option will bring you to a page with an explanation. Read the explanation, if any, and then return to the multiple-choice assessment.
2.2: Bacterial Metabolism URL University of Texas: Peter Jurtsuk's "Bacterial Metabolism"

Read this page. Compare and contrast the general cellular metabolism to bacterial metabolism.
2.3: Archaea Metabolism URL The Japan Academy: Tadayuki Imanaka's "Molecular Bases of Thermophily in Hyperthermophiles"

Read this page for an example of characteristic archaeal metabolic adaptations. Thermophile species are present in all four Archaea taxa (Korarcheotes, Euryarcheotes, Crenarcheotes, and Nanoarcheotes). In general, Archaea shares characteristics both with Eukarya (e.g. the initiator tRNA and introns) and with Bacteria (e.g. 70S ribosomes), but Archaea have unique molecular features as well (e.g. cell wall structure and branched membrane lipid hydrocarbones).
2.4: The Metabolism of Protists URL Michael L. Ginger's "The Evolution of Organellar Metabolism in Unicellular Eukaryotes"

Read this page. Most eukaryotes are protists. Protista is a diverse domain, reflected by organellar diversity.
2.5: Fungal Metabolism URL Garry T. Cole's "Basic Biology of Fungi"

Read this chapter. Fungi are decomposers. Compare and contrast the general cellular metabolism to fungal metabolism.
3.1.1: Growth and Nutrition Requirements URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Nutrition and Growth of Bacteria"

Read this this chapter to learn about the requirements necessary for bacterial growth. Be sure to read each of the subsequent pages in the chapter.
3.1.2: Generation Time URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary Kaiser's "Bacterial Growth and Microbial Metabolism"

Read this lecture about the concept of generation time. Test your knowledge with the short quiz at the bottom of the page.
3.1.3: Bacterial Growth URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook of Bacteriology: The Growth of Bacterial Populations"

This chapter provides an overview of bacterial growth. Be sure to read the rest of the chapter by clicking "Chapter Continued" at the bottom of each page. 
3.1.4: Estimation Methods for Population URL Dr. Harold Eddleman's "How to Count Bacteria"

Read this article to review the different ways bacteria can be counted.
3.1.5: Growth Control URL University of Wisconsin-Madison: Kenneth Todar's "The Control of Microbial Growth"

Read this page and the following two pages. These pages discuss general microbial growth techniques: sterilization and employing physical and chemical agents. In Unit 1, you learned about the history of antimicrobial techniques, including the independent observations of Semmelweis and Nightingale.
3.1.6: Microbial Resistance URL University of Wisconsin-Madison: Kenneth Todar's "Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics"

Read this page.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Dr. Gary E. Kaiser's "Lab 4: Enumeration of Microorganisms”

Take this assessment, and then check your answers here. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment here.
3.2.1: Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction URL Clinton Community College: Michael J. Gregory's "Mitosis and Meiosis"

Read this article to compare and contrast the differences between these two reproductive strategies. Only eukaryotes can reproduce with meiosis.
3.2.2: Binary Fission and Budding URL Cornell University: "Binary Fission and Other Forms of Reproduction in Bacteria"

Read these three pages. Only prokaryotes go through binary fission.
Page TutorVista: "Budding in Yeast and Hydra"

Watch this short video for a discussion of budding in yeasts.
3.2.3: Endospore Formation URL Cornell University: "Bacterial Endospores"

Read these three pages to learn about the special circumstances under which endospores form in certain types of bacteria.
3.3.1: Bacterial Chromosome URL South Dakota State University: Stanley Malloy's "Bacterial Chromosome"

Read this article to learn how bacterial chromosomes differ from eukaryotes.
3.3.2: Processing Genetic Information URL McGraw Hill: "Processing of Gene Information: Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes"

Watch this animation, which shows how transcription and translation occur in bacteria. You should consider reviewing gene transcription and gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
3.3.3: Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms"

Read this page and review the diagrams in the left panel. Click on Figures 1 to 10 for a graphical explanation of operon mediated bacterial gene expression.
3.3.4: Genetic Information Exchange URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Exchange of Genetic Information"

Read this page. Click on Figures 1 to 4 for a graphical explanation of DNA exchange mechanisms in bacteria.
3.3.5: Mutations URL Anthony Griffiths' "Spontaneous Mutations"

Read this chapter, which summarizes mutations that occur in the cell.
3.4:Reproduction and Genetics in other Microorganisms URL University of Sydney: "Microbial Concepts: Reproduction"

Read the introduction and then move on to "Question 1" to move to the next page (Reproduction: Bacteria), and answer the question (you can check the correct answer if you click on the "Answer" button). Return to the introduction page, and click on "Next." Explore all animations and answer "Question 2." Return to "Reproduction: Bacteria" and click on "Next" to move to "Reproduction: Fungi." Explore all animations, and answer "Question 3."
4.1.1: Prokaryote Shapes URL The Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Sizes, Shapes, and Arrangements of Bacteria"

Read this page. Click on every embedded hyperlink, and explore the linked contents. Finally, click on "Quiz Yourself on This Section" to test your knowledge.
4.1.2: Size of Microorganisms URL Mike Kempf's "Microbes Defined by Size"

Read this article, which provides some generalized information on the sizes of various microbes.
4.1.3: Morphological Characteristics URL Beatrice Leung and Shijun Liu's "Interpreting Plates"

Read this article on distinguishing between the different patterns of bacterial growth for cultures grown on plates.
4.2.1: Plating and Culturing URL Sigma-Aldrich: "Media Preparation"

Read this article, which describes how media can be used to grow microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. Media is prepared using various agents that will either enhance or inhibit the growth of certain organisms.
4.2.2.1: Gram Staining URL Fox Valley Technical College: Kristine Snow's "Gram Stain Procedure"

Read these lecture slides for a demonstration of the gram staining procedure.
4.2.2.2: Acid Fast Staining URL Fox Valley Technical College: Kristine Snow's "Acid-Fast Stain"

Study this short demonstration of the acid-fast staining procedure. Acid-fast staining is used to differentiate between organisms like the acid-fast positive "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" and other acid-fast negative organisms. Complete the two short review activities to evaluate how much you have learned. You will only be able to access the second activity after completing the first matching activity on the last slide of the presentation.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Lab 5: Direct Stain and Indirect Stain"

Complete this quiz. After clicking on the link above, scroll down to "Self-Quiz" at the bottom of the page. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Lab 6: Gram Stain and Capsule Stain"

Complete this quiz. After clicking on the link above, scroll down to "Self-Quiz" at the bottom of the page. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
5.1: Pathogenesis URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "General Aspects of Bacterial Pathogenesis"

Read this chapter. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.2.1: Staphylococcus URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Staphylococci"

Read the section titled "Staphylococci." Watch the "Catalase Test Movie" under Fig.7. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Study Figures 3 to 5 and 8 for micrographs.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Isolation and Identification of Staphylococci"

Complete this quiz. After clicking on the link above, scroll down to "Self-Quiz" at the bottom of the page. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
5.2.2: Streptococcus URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Streptococci"

Read this chapter on Streptococci. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Make sure to view the last image in the left panel to identify Streptococcus.
5.2.3: Enterococcus URL The Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Enterococcus Species"

Read this article to learn about this microorganism, which is commonly found in fecal matter. Click on every link that is embedded in the text to explore the content.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Isolation and Identification of Streptococci and Enterococci"

Complete this quiz. After clicking on the link above, scroll down to "Self-Quiz" at the bottom of the page. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
5.2.4: Neisseria URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Spirochetes and Neisseria"

Read the section titled "Neisseria," located near the bottom of the page. The Neisseria genus includes two major classes, N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis. The former causes gonorrhea, while the latter is one major cause of bacterial meningitis. The term "diplococcic" means "two cocci" or "a pair of cocci." Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.3.1: Bacillus URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook on Bacteriology: The Genus Bacillus"

Read this six-page article on Bacillus. Make sure you understand the relationship between Bacillus and other spore forming bacteria. Note that Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax, a disease commonly associated with bioterrorism.
5.3.2: Clostridium URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Anaerobes and Pseudomonas-Opportunistic Infections"

Read the section titled "Anaerobic Spore-Formers (Clostridia)." The clostridium genus produces the botulinum toxin that causes botulism. The toxin is a major cause of human food poisoning throughout the world. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.3.3: Listeria URL Kenneth Todar's "Online Textbook on Bacteriology: Listeria Monocytogenes"

Read this three-page chapter on listeria.
5.3.4: Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Mycobacteria and Corynebacteria"

Read this chapter about Mycobacterium and Corynebacteria. The Mycobacterium genus of bacteria causes many serious diseases, including tuberculosis and leprosy. By the end of this reading, you should be able to identify which species causes which disease. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.3.5: Actinomyces and Nocardia URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Art DiSalvo's "Actinomycetes"

Read this article. Focus on learning the differences between Actinomyces, Nocardia, and Streptomyces. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.4.1: Pseudomonas URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Anaerobes and Pseudomonas-Opportunistic Infections"

Read the section titled "Pseudomonas aeruginosa".
5.4.2: Brucella URL Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "General Information: Brucellosis"

Read this article from the CDC to learn about Brucella, which typically infects only animals but can also infect humans with as little as 10 to 100 Brucella cells. 
5.4.3: Bordetella and Legionella URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar's "Bordetella, Haemophilus, and Legionella"

Read this chapter covering Bordetella, Haemophilus, and Legionella. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. There is a very helpful diagram on the binding of pertussis toxin to the cell membrane. To access the diagram, click on the link to the diagram about half way down the left side panel.
5.4.4: Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, Campylobacter, and Helicobacter"

Read the sections "Escherichia coli," "Shigella," "Salmonella," and "Yersinia." Some of these names might be familiar to you. For example, you might have heard of Escherichia before; it is the "E" in E. coli, one of the most commonly studied organisms in microbiology. Meanwhile, Salmonella is most commonly found on uncooked meats and raw vegetables and is one of the most common agents of food poisoning. Salmonella has nothing to do with the fish, salmon; it was named after Daniel Salmon, the first individual to hold a doctorate in veterinary medicine in America. Lastly, Yersinia is the cause of the bubonic plague, one of the deadliest diseases in human history. Also known as the "Black Death," it wiped out entire cities and killed hundreds of millions of people. It was so devastating that the total population of Europe was not able to recoup its numbers until more than a century later, permanently altering the course of European history.
5.5.1: Treponema and Leptospira URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Spirochetes and Neisseria"

Read the sections titled "Treponema pallidum" and "Leptospirosis." The Treponema genus causes syphilis, a common sexually transmitted disease. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.5.2: Vibrio and Campylobacter URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Alvin Fox's "Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, Campylobacter, and Helicobacter"

Read the sections titled "Vibrio Species" and "Campylobacter and Helicobacter." Vibrio cholerae causes cholera. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.5.3: Chlamydia URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Chlamydia and Chlamydophila"

Read this article on Chlamydia. Chlamydia, a common sexually transmitted disease, is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
5.5.4: Mycoplasma URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma"

Read this chapter, which covers Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. All Mycoplasma species lack a cell wall. Because they lack a cell wall, they are unaffected by many antibiotics (such as penicillin) that destroy bacteria by targeting cell walls. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Isolation and Identification of Neisseriae, Mycobacteria and Obligate Anaerobes"

Complete this quiz. After clicking on the link above, scroll down to "Self-Quiz" at the bottom of the page. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
5.6: Antibiotics URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Antibiotics: Protein Synthesis, Nucleic Acid Synthesis and Metabolism"

Read this chapter on the antibiotic medication used to kill microorganisms in humans and animals.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Direct Serologic Testing"

Complete this assessment. After clicking on the link above, select the "Self-Quiz" link to download the assessment PDF file, afterwards click on "Answers" and compare your responses. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, and click on the links to study annotated figures.
6.1: Fungi and Human Disease URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Arthur DiSalvo's "Introduction to Mycology"

Read this article to learn about pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi.
URL Stephen T. Abedon's "Fungi"

Read this article for an introduction to fungi, their growth requirements, and their reproductive properties.
6.2: True Pathogenic Fungi URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Arthur DiSalvo's "Dimorphic Fungi"

Read this article. It does a great job discussing pathogenic (disease-causing) fungi. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
6.3: Mycotoxins Page TheSickHouseDoctor: "Mold and Mycotoxins"

Watch this video, which discusses how mycotoxins can contaminate a home and spread to humans.
6.4.1: Yeasts URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Arthur DiSalvo's "Yeasts"

Read this article. Candida is one of the most common causes of yeast infections in humans. Other yeasts, such as Cryptococcus, also cause opportunistic infections. Candida includes many species that cause infections, such as thrush and common yeast infections in women. 
6.4.2: Pneumocystis URL Alison Morris et al.'s "Current Epidemiology of Pneumocystis Pneumonia"

Read this article about pneumocystis.
6.4.3: Aspergillus URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Arthur DiSalvo's "Filamentous Fungi"

Read the section titled "Aspergillus." Aspergillus is commonly found in the environment and can act as on opportunistic pathogen.
6.5.1: Penicillium URL University of Wisconsin: Tom Volk's "Penicillium Chrysogenum"

Read this article on the fungus from which the antibiotic penicillin is derived.
6.5.2: Saccharomyces URL University of Wisconsin: Tom Volk's "Saccharomyces Cerevisiae"

Read this article about Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, which makes baker's and brewer's yeast, which is then used to bake bread, brew beer, and ferment wine.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "The Yeasts, Part 1"

Complete this quiz. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "The Yeasts, Part 2"

Complete this quiz. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
6.6: Antifungals URL Dennis M. Dixon and Thomas J. Walsh's "Antifungal Agents"

Read this article on the antifungal drugs used to treat a variety of fungal infections.
7.1.1: Protozoa Characteristics URL Mountain Empire Community College: Rosa-less Cook's "Protozoa"

Read this chapter, which focuses on protozoa and their unique features. 
7.1.2.1: Intestinal and Luminal Protozoa URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar's "Intestinal and Luminal Protozoa"

Read this chapter about intestinal and luminal protozoa. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Be sure to examine all of the life cycle diagrams that are embedded in the text when you study.
7.1.2.2: Blood-Borne Protozoa URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar's "Blood and Tissue Protozoa"

Read this chapter on blood-borne protozoa. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Be sure to examine the life cycle diagrams that are embedded in the text when you study.
7.1.2.3: Trichomonas URL University of Delaware: Don Lehman's "Trichomonas Vaginalis"

Read this article.
7.2.1: Helminths Characteristics URL Gilbert A. Castro's "Helminths: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development"

Read this chapter to understand the characteristics of Helminths. Unlike Protozoa and Algae, which fall under the kingdom "Protists," Helminths fall under the kingdom "Animalia."
7.2.2.1: Nematodes URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar's "Nematodes"

Read this article on the round worms known as nematodes. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Be sure to examine all of the life cycle diagrams that are embedded in the text when you study.
7.2.2.2: Trematodes URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar and Gregory Brower's "Trematodes"

Read this article on the flukes known as trematodes. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Be sure to examine all of the life cycle diagrams that are embedded in the text when you study.
7.2.2.3: Cestodes URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Abdul Ghaffar and Gregory Brower's "Cestodes"

Read this article on tapeworms, also known as cestodes. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Be sure to examine all of the life cycle diagrams that are embedded in the text when you study.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Parasitology"

Complete this quiz. After completing the quiz return to the first page and click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, also note that clicking on the links under the empty frames brings you to annotated micrographs.
7.3: Antiparasitics URL University of Arizona: Peder Cuneo's "Antiparasitic Drugs"

Study these slides. Use the arrows to work your way through the presentation, which thoroughly covers the drugs used to treat parasites.
8.1: Virus Characteristics Page Khan Academy: "Introduction to Viruses"

Watch this lecture, which identifies the major characteristics of viruses.
URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt's "Basic Virology: Definitions, Classification, Morphology and Chemistry"

Read this overview of DNA and RNA viruses, which are either single or double stranded and can vary in size and morphology.
8.2: Viral Replication Cycles URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt's "Basic Virology: Replication of Viruses"

Read this chapter to learn about viral replication cycles.
8.3.1: Poxviruses URL University of Pittsburgh: Peter H. Russell's "Poxviridae (Veterinary Virology)"

Study these slides. Note that poxviruses cause most diseases with the word "pox" in their names. The major exception is chickenpox, which is caused by herpesvirus, our next topic.
8.3.2: Herpesviruses, Adenoviruses, Papillomaviruses, and other Oncogenic Viruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard C. Hunt's "Oncogenic Viruses"

Read this chapter to learn about viruses that can cause cancer. Herpes viruses cause a variety of diseases, from genital herpes to mononucleosis to chickenpox. The human papillomavirus (HPV) has been associated with cervical cancer. A vaccination is now available for both females and males to prevent HPV infection. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study.
8.4.1: Parvoviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt and Richard Hunt's "Parvoviruses and Fifth Disease"

Read this article to understand parvoviruses and their threat to our pets.
8.4.2: Geminiviruses URL Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics: "Geminiviridae"

Read this article about the ssDNA viral family.
8.5.1: Arboviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt's "Arboviruses"

Read this article on Arboviruses, which include the mosquito-spread West Nile Virus and Reoviridae. Reoviridae causes the gastroenteritis illness known as "Rotavirus."
8.5.2: Birnaviruses URL Journal of General Virology: Joan Pous, Christophe Chevalier, et al.'s "Structure of Birnavirus-like Particles Determined by Combined Electron Cryomicroscopy and X-ray Crystallography"

Read the first three paragraphs of the introduction to gain an understanding of birnaviruses.
8.6.1: Coronaviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Corona Viruses, Colds, and SARS"

Read this article to learn about Coronavirus and SARS. SARS, also known as severe acute respiratory syndrome, is caused by a type of coronavirus.
8.6.2: Picornaviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine Richard Hunt's "Picornaviruses Part One: Enteroviruses and General Features of Picornaviruses"

Read this article to learn about Picornaviruses, which cause intestinal problems as well as the common cold.
URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Picornaviruses Part Two: Rhinoviruses"

Read the article to learn about Rhinoviruses.
8.6.3: Caliciviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: N. Narayan and Helmut Albrecht's "Rotaviruses, Caliciviruses, Adenoviruses, Astroviruses, and Others"

Read the section titled "Caliciviruses".
8.7.1: Orthomyxoviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt's "Influenza Virus (Orthomyxoviruses)"

Read this chapter to learn about different types of flu viruses. Orthomyxoviruses are more commonly known as the flu virus. There are many kinds of flu viruses, including H1N1. 
8.7.2: Paramyxoviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Margaret Hunt's "Measles (Rubeola) and Mumps"

Read this chapter, which discusses Paramyxoviruses.
8.7.3: Rhabdoviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Rabies"

Read this chapter to further understand the dangers of rabies to animals and humans. One type of virus in the rhabdovirus family is called lyssavirus, which causes rabies. Rabies is infallibly lethal; if left untreated, it has a death rate of 100%.
8.7.4: Filoviruses URL Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics: "Filoviridae"

Read this article to learn about Filoviruses and hemorrhagic fever. Filoviruses cause viral hemorrhagic fevers, a particularly destructive set of conditions that often leads to death. One such virus is the Ebolavirus, which causes Ebola.
8.8.1: Hepadnaviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Hepatitis Viruses"

Read this chapter to learn about hepatitis. Retroviruses use intermediates to make copies of themselves. DNA retroviruses use RNA intermediates, while RNA viruses use DNA intermediates.
8.8.2: Lentiviruses URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS"

Read this article to learn about the HIV virus and AIDS. The most famous lentivirus is the human immunodeficiency virus, also known as HIV.
URL The University of Arizona Biology Project: "Viruses Tutorial"

Read this page, and then click on the "Next" button on the bottom of the page. On the next page choose "What is alive?" This is a multiple-choice assessment. Choosing an option will bring you to a page that indicates whether you answered correctly or incorrectly and provides a short explanation. If you answer incorrectly, click on "try again" to repeat the question. If you answer correctly, click on the link to the next problem.
8.9: Antivirals URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Anti-Viral Chemotherapy"

Read this chapter on anti-viral medications. Although the word "chemotherapy" is almost exclusively used in common language to refer to cancer treatment, it actually refers to the chemicals used in drug therapy for a variety of illnesses. Refer to Figure 1 on the attack mechanism of an enveloped virus as you study.
9.1: Non-Specific Immunity (Skin and Mucous Membrane and Innate Immunity) URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Gene Mayer's "Innate (Non-Specific) Immunity"

Read this chapter, which describes how the body combats the invasion of microorganisms in a non-specific manner. Non-specific mechanisms include skin and mucous membranes, as well as the innate immune response. Take advantage of the PowerPoint lecture slides as you study. Click on the icons of Figures 1 to 3 and 9 to 14 for summaries and mechanisms.
9.2: Adaptive Immunity URL The Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "The Adaptive Immune System"

Read this article on how the adaptive immune system protects the body. Once you have completed the reading assignment, test your knowledge by clicking on the link, titled "Quiz Yourself on this Section," at the bottom of the page.
URL The University of Arizona Biology Project: "HIV Impacts"

Study this page, and then select the "Test Yourself" link at the bottom of the page. Complete the "Antigen-specific immune response" and "White blood cell regulating production of antibodies and destruction of infected cells" problems. These are multiple-choice assessments. Choosing an option will bring you to a page with explanation. If this explanation is a "Tutorial," then read it carefully and return to the multiple-choice assessment. Be sure to complete both problems.
URL Community College of Baltimore County: Gary E. Kaiser's "Indirect Serologic Testing"

Complete this assessment. Select the "Self-Quiz" link to download the assessment in a PDF file and take the quiz. Click on "Answers" to see the correct answers. There is a detailed introduction to this assessment above the "Self-Quiz." Be sure to visit the "Results" section, and click on the links to study annotated figures.
9.3: Vaccination URL University of South Carolina School of Medicine: Richard Hunt's "Vaccines: Past Successes and Future Prospects"

Read this chapter to learn about the different types of vaccines and how they work.
10.1.1: Bioremediation Page U.S. Geological Survey: "Bioremediation: Nature's Way to a Cleaner Environment”

Read this article on how oil spills are cleaned up by the process of bioremediation. Follow the links in the "Why Bioremediation Works” section; these links will take you to U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reports. Study the introductory paragraph on each of the following USGS pages and "Project Headlines” pages: for "Crude Oil Contamination in the Shallow Subsurface: Bemidji, Minnesota,” study the project headline "Predicting Plume Growth rates;” for "Sewage-Contaminated Ground Water - Cape Cod, Massachusetts,” study the project headlines "Hydrogen Measured in a New Test for Determining Subsurface Microbiological Activity at Contamination Sites” and "Decades Required for Natural Processes to Clean Wastewater-Contaminated Ground Water;” and for "San Francisco Bay Estuary Priority Ecosystem Study,” study the project headline "Phytoplankton in Coastal Waters and Global Climate Change?” 
10.1.2: Sewage Treatment URL John Kimball's "Sewage Treatment"

Read this article to learn how wastes are treated and disposed of. Follow the "Chlorination" and "Eutrophication" links, and study these sections as well.
10.2.1: Aseptic Packaging Page U.S. Food and Drug Administration: "Guide to Inspections of Aseptic Processing and Packaging for the Food Industry"

Read this introduction to learn about how we ensure that the food that we eat is packaged in a manner that will prevent microbial contamination. This document was prepared by the FDA to act as a guide for industries involved in packaging food.
10.2.2: Fermentation URL Washington State University: R. E. Hurlbert's "Preparation of Yogurt, Beer, and Sauerkraut"

Study this laboratory guide, which explains how microbiology is used in the preparation of foods such as yogurt, beer, and sauerkraut. Directions are even given as recipes so you can make your own. Let's get cooking!
URL The University of Arizona Biology Project: "Metabolism Problem Set"

Complete the following assessments: "Lactic Acid Production," "Pyruvate/ Lactate Ratio," and "Fermentation" problems. These are multiple-choice assessments. Choosing an option will bring you to a page with explanation. Read the explanation, if any, and return to the multiple-choice assessment. Be sure to complete all problems.
10.3: Industrial Microbiology URL San Mateo County Community College: Christine L. Case's "Industrial Microbiology"

Study this resource by clicking on the links on the left sidebar and reading each section from "Fermentation & Human History," "Beer," "Chocolate" and "Discover a New Antibiotic."
10.3.1: Industrial Products of Microbes Page Chris Reuter's "Industrial Microbiology"

Watch Parts I-IV of the lecture and take notes.
10.3.2: Bioconversion URL Cornell University: Nancy Trautmann and Elaina Olynciw's "Compost Microorganisms"

Read this article about the various types of microbes that are used during composting.
Page Paul A. Olivier's "The Bio-Conversion of Putrescent Wastes"

Watch the slides in this video, which discuss bioconversion.
10.3.3: Biofuels Page National Renewable Energy Laboratory: "Biofuel”

Read the article and watch the video to learn about biofuels and the research that is being done to create this new source of energy.