Topic outline

  • COURSE INTRODUCTION

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    • Time: 37 hours
    • Free Certificate
    In this course, we explore the physical and human landscapes of the world by dividing them into ten regions. We explore physical characteristics, such as location, climate, terrain, and natural hazards, and human characteristics, such as culture, ethnicity, language, economics, and politics.

    Our goal is to begin understanding each region's physical and human attributes from a spatial perspective and place them within a global framework. We will use maps to locate places and features within regions to help us understand global issues, such as international conflict, cooperation, environmental degradation, population growth, and globalization.

    We will respond to the following questions, among many others.

    • How does a regional approach to studying the world help us understand it?
    • What tools and methods do geographers use to study the world?
    • Who lives in each region?
    • What languages do they speak there and why?
    • What explains the locations of their cities?
    • How does geography help explain conflicts in some regions?
    • Why do so many earthquakes occur in some places?
    • Why does the landscape look different from region to region?

    Keep in mind that this course is designed to look at the world from a geographical perspective. We only touch on many aspects of local and regional history and political situations that are more appropriate as topics for another type of course.

    In addition, the world is constantly changing. Inevitably, the issues we frame as current will become part of history. Of course, it is impossible to thoroughly explore the world in one course. One of our goals is to help you learn how to ask informed questions you can put into a world regional geography framework. We hope to provide a spatial perspective you can use to seek data and information. We challenge you to explore on your own. Now, let's get started on our journey around the world, region by region.

  • Unit 1: Introduction to Geography

    Geography comes from the Greek word geo (Earth) and graph (to write). It examines the physical features of the Earth, its atmosphere, the human landscape, and the spatial relationships between them. Geographers seek to identify, explain, and predict human and physical patterns across space to understand how the spaces in between are connected. In this unit, we introduce the discipline of geography and the importance of the spatial perspective. We investigate the different types of locations and regions, the use of maps, and the role of technology. We also introduce the components of physical and human geography that we will examine across the world's regions.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

    • 1.1: What Is Geography?

      Geography is a broad discipline that focuses on spatial relationships and the interaction between humans and their physical environment. Geographers use the word spatial to describe their approach; some even refer to geography as a spatial science. However, the words spatial and geographic have different meanings, even though some use them interchangeably. The Cambridge Dictionary defines spatial as relating to the "position, size, and area of things" and geographic as relating to "geography, or to the geography of a particular area or place". "Spatial" is the broader of the two terms and includes the concept of "geographic". Remember that geography refers to Earth's human landscape and its physical features. Although the discipline of geography often focuses on particular locations, it also focuses on the broader context – the spatial relationships between locations. At the 1969 International Geographical Union's Commission on Qualitative Methods, Waldo Tobler (1913–2018), an American geographer, observed that "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things". This idea, known as Tobler's First Law of Geography, is fundamental to spatial relationships.

    • 1.2: Maps

      What roles do maps play in geography? Maps are geographical abstractions of the environment – they are graphic representations of spatial forms and the relationships between them. We often think of maps as displays on a screen or on paper. We use them to navigate, explore, communicate information, solve problems, and organize our ideas. They are an efficient way to share data that occurs in two- and three-dimensional space. We call the study of maps "cartography" or the science of maps. Cartography includes the following activities and anything else that focuses on the presentation and use of maps.

      • teaching map use skills,
      • studying the history of cartography,
      • maintaining map collections,
      • manipulating data for mapping, and
      • designing and preparing maps.

      Maps are fundamental to the study of geography. Geographers use existing maps and create new ones to explore places and phenomena. We can use relative or absolute location to map a location. Two major challenges include determining how to project the roughly spherical Earth onto a two-dimensional map and fitting the Earth onto a map that is a size we can use.

    • 1.3: Geospatial Technology

      Geographers use many tools to help them study places and the relationships between them. Many disciplines also use these tools. For example, cell phones use the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for location information to help us navigate. Remotely sensed imagery (captured BY-SAtellites, aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones) provides information about land use and cover to help us mitigate hazards. Much of this imagery is captured over time, which gives us a valuable temporal perspective on changes in the landscape.

      Geographers use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to layer data, including remotely sensed imagery and GNSS locations. Maps are the most common mode of analysis and presentation, which is what distinguishes GIS from other modes of information science. Your ability to analyze data spatially provides a powerful perspective, whether you study a map printed on paper or examine its multiple geographic layers on a computer.The author in our previous reading referred to GIS as Geographic Information Systems and Geographic Information Science. Let's look at the difference between the two.

      Geographic Information Systems integrate hardware, software, and data to capture, manage, analyze, and display geographically referenced information. Many disciplines use GIS, not just geography. Geographic Information Science is a scientific discipline in its own right, although it is often associated with the discipline of geography. It is the study of geographic information, including the representation of phenomena in the real world, the representation of the way humans understand the world, and how geographic information can be captured, organized, and analyzed. Some people think of GIScience as the science behind the GISystem.

      In this course, we use GIS to mean Geographic Information Systems. GIS allows users to combine multiple layers of geographic data to create maps and solve problems. There are many different GIS software platforms – they are proprietary and open source. There are also web-based GIS platforms.

    • 1.4: Geography's Subdisciplines

      As we learned earlier, geography is a broad discipline that focuses on spatial relationships and the interaction between humans and their physical environment. Like all disciplines, geography has subdisciplines and specializations.

    • 1.5: The Physical Environment and Human Activity

      This section introduces several of the major concepts of physical geography: plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, climate, and climate change. Remember that physical geographers focus on how natural features and processes relate to human activity. Note that it goes both ways: the physical environment affects human activity, and human activity affects the physical environment. Some of these interactions occur rapidly, while others transpire over hundreds of years.

    • 1.6: The Human Setting and Globalization

      Remember that human geographers focus on how humans interact with and affect the Earth. This section introduces several major concepts of human geography: demography, urbanization, core and periphery, globalization and inequality, and diffusion.

    • 1.7: The World's Regions

      Geographers divide the world into regions, the categories they created to reduce the complexity of the world. Generally, each region has at least one feature in common. Let's look at three examples.

      Americans are familiar with the relatively-flat interior Midwest region of the United States. However, not everyone agrees on the boundaries of the Midwest because, for example, they may think agricultural production or tornado activity helps define them. We call regions based on these types of perceptions "vernacular regions".

      A formal region, on the other hand, has an internationally recognized border or boundary that is not open to debate. The countries Bolivia, Costa Rica, and the United States are examples. A functional region offers a particular function or service. The delivery area of a grocery store is an example of a functional region. The store delivers groceries to residents who live within the area, but those living outside the delivery area must go to the store to pick up their purchases.

      It is common to find variation among individuals, groups, subdisciplines, and academic courses because people have different ideas on the parameters that define a world region or what their boundaries should be. For this course, we have divided the world into the nine realms shown in Figure 1.17 of the following text. There are many common characteristics that establish a coherent unit, although there is variation within each region in terms of size and borders that overlap.

    • Unit 1 Assessment

  • Unit 2: Europe

    Let's begin our study of the world's regions in Europe. While humans did not originate in Europe, and we do not consider it the "cradle of civilization", this region has profoundly affected the world's other regions, primarily due to colonization. Europe's geography has been an essential component of its economic history. Its geography influenced the movement of its people, and its natural resources facilitated its economic development during the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions.

    However, Europe's socioeconomic success has contributed to the challenges it now faces. The influx of immigrants from places it once colonized has led to a rise in nationalism. Globalization has also contributed to forces that divide rather than unify many Europeans. In this unit, we also investigate themes we introduced in Unit 1 as part of the European context.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

    • 2.1: Maps of Europe

      Let's begin our examination of Europe by studying a political map and taking a brief quiz to check your understanding of the region.

    • 2.2: Europe's Physical Geography and Boundaries

      As a world region, Europe is relatively small. Its physical geography ranges from places below sea level, such as the Zuider Zee of the Netherlands in the Northern Lowlands, to Mont Blanc in the High Alps, which straddles the border of France and Italy.

    • 2.3: Europe's Shifting Political Landscape

      We can certainly devote an entire course to the history of European culture (and to that of every region we study in this course). But let's take a brief look at some general themes from a geographical perspective.

    • 2.4: European Exploration Sets the Stage for Colonialism

      Colonialism refers to the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country. This control includes exploiting the country economically and occupying it with settlers from the colonizing country. 

      Geography facilitated European colonization across the world. Although many European countries are relatively small, they were among the major colonial powers because they had ocean access.

      Smaller countries with less land area and fewer natural resources often looked for new territories to expand. For example, Belgium, England, France, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain had disproportionate control over much of the world from the 1400s until World War II.

      See the map in Figure 2.2 to visualize how the Europeans divided the continent of Africa among themselves. Note that Belgium exploited the Belgian Congo for its rubber. The Belgian Congo was more than 75 times larger than the country of Belgium in Europe. Note that the Belgian Congo became the Republic of the Congo in 1960 (later the Democratic Republic of the Congo) when it finally gained its independence from Belgium.

      Africa's colonial history mirrors the colonial experiences of many countries around the world. The colonial powers drew the borders for many countries, and many of these same political boundaries remain today (often with disastrous effects). Many colonial residents also speak the language of their colonizers. For example, Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, which Portugal colonized for its mineral resources from 1532–1822.

    • 2.5: The European Union

      In many ways, the organization of the European Union (EU) is a reflection of its region. The EU arose out of shared economic and political interests among the member states – it grew from 12 original members in 1992 to 28 when Croatia entered in 2013 and 27 when the United Kingdom withdrew in 2020. Switzerland and Norway were never members, while Turkey is not considered a part of the EU despite its membership application in 1987.

    • 2.6: Europe's Geography and Economic Development

      How did the geography of Europe contribute to the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions that advanced Europe's economic development? Note that these events, in turn, affected Europe's geography by irrevocably altering the human and physical landscape.

    • 2.7: Historical Migration Patterns in Europe

      Much of Europe's inter- and intraregional migration aligns with the concepts of core and periphery and a rural-to-urban shift. Various push and pull factors have contributed to migration, such as employment opportunities, war, environmental hazards, governmental policies, and religious persecution.

    • 2.8: Does a European Identity Exist?

      The concept of identity is difficult to define. Establishing a European identity for countries that have fought wars and competed with each other for centuries has been challenging. The EU leaders adopted an anthem (Ode to Joy), a motto (United in Diversity), a flag (with a circle of 12 stars on a blue field), a common currency (the Euro €), and a holiday (Europe Day on May 9th). Citizens of EU member countries who identify as European distinguish themselves from other parts of the world, but their identification with their home country remains strong.

    • 2.9: Demographic Changes in Europe

      Globalization and war precipitated the arrival of large numbers of immigrants in Europe. This region is the preferred destination for many fleeing desperate situations, and the war in Syria triggered an international Syrian refugee crisis. In 2015, 1.3 million Syrians sought asylum in Europe. Religion is a strong component of identity, and most Europeans have trended toward secularism. This trend conflicts with the fact that many of Europe's immigrants are Muslim. Some Europeans fear a higher birth rate among immigrant populations will "dilute" their own. Demographic shifts across the continent will likely continue, especially as Russia's recent invasion of Ukraine causes further migration and instability.

    • Unit 2 Assessment

  • Unit 3: Russia

    Russia is the largest country in the world in terms of physical area. It is nearly twice the size of the United States. Russia's extensive landscapes include major metropolitan areas such as Moscow, vast territories in the Arctic north, the immense forests of Siberia, the deepest lake in the world, massive grain farms, volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain communities in the Caucasus. Russia is rich in natural resources, but its population is slowly declining, and it is seeing extremes of wealth and poverty. Russia recently invaded Ukraine to expand its territory, creating a war that is draining its resources and prompting other countries to boycott Russian goods. Russia is becoming increasingly isolated.

    This unit explores Russia's physical characteristics, cultural diversity, and environmental challenges. We examine the historical development patterns of Russia, its economy, and the human landscape of Russia today, in the early 2020s.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

    • 3.1: Maps of Russia

      Let's begin our examination of Russia by studying some maps of the region and taking a brief quiz to check our understanding.

    • 3.2: Russia's Physical Geography

      It is hard to overestimate Russia's vastness. Its northern latitude and size contribute to the continental climate that dominates the realm. Temperatures are extreme because most of its territory is far from the ocean's moderating effects. Winters are extremely cold, and summers are hot. Precipitation is highly variable.
      Although Russia's physical landscape ranges from Lake Baikal, the deepest lake in the world, to Mount Elbrus, a dormant volcano in the Caucasus Mountains, it has large contiguous areas with little variation in elevation.

      Russia's extensive plains, steppes, and plateaus are covered in forests, grasses, and wetlands. Because parts of Russia extend into the Arctic, the tundra covers its northern extent. Russia's diverse physical geography is vulnerable to environmental threats due to the effects of global climate change and the settlement patterns it has practiced within its borders.

    • 3.3: Russia's Settlement Patterns and Environmental Challenges

      Russia's settlement patterns are due to its geography and past governmental policies. It is not surprising that vast areas of Russia remain sparsely populated, given its size.

    • 3.4: Russian History and Expansion

      Russia is the only country that comprises an entire region in this course. Although its area is smaller in 2022 than it was in the Soviet Union or the Russian Empire, Russia is still the largest country in the world (17 million km2 ). Canada is the second largest country at 9.9 million km2.

    • 3.5: Russian Multiculturalism and Tensions

      Imperial Russia was home to many ethnic groups that spoke and practiced many different languages and religions. The Russian czars were unsuccessful in their attempts at Russification. They forced residents to speak Russian and convert to Russian Orthodoxy, but individual identity remained tied to one's ethnic group. This attempt to create a Russian identity was less successful when the people lived farther away from Moscow, the center of power.

    • 3.6: The Economy and Government During the Soviet Era

      In this section, we see the perils associated with ignoring geography when making economic decisions. Russia's size poses formidable challenges when it comes to governance and the implementation of its economic goals. The Soviet Union's approach (1917–1991) proved costly and made life especially difficult during the Cold War.

    • 3.7: The Russian Federation

      Political, economic, and social uncertainty characterized the post-Soviet transition. Boris Yeltsin, the first president of the new Russian Federation, began reforming the Russian economy by privatizing state-owned enterprises. These reforms occurred so quickly that the transfer of state property and assets was handled informally.

      Well-connected entrepreneurs, who were successful on the black market during the Soviet era, became wealthy due to corrupt deals they made with former Soviet officials and newly-elected politicians. They exploited the voucher privatization system, which was intended to distribute national wealth among the general public and employees of privatized enterprises. Instead, the vouchers ended up in the hands of these well-connected entrepreneurs, who became known as oligarchs.

      Oligarchs are wealthy individuals who have undue political influence. They are often associated with corruption and are motivated by their own interests. During this time, the oligarchs of Russia weakened the economic conditions for average Russians by putting their money in Swiss bank accounts rather than investing in the Russian economy.

      Russia's depressed economy created dire conditions for ordinary Russians. Well-connected entrepreneurs became wealthy overnight, while millions of Russians became poverty-stricken. Extreme corruption, criminal gangs, and organized crime increased dramatically. Although the long food lines had disappeared and access to Western goods and consumer products became much more widely available, Russians were increasingly dissatisfied with Yeltsin's leadership. Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin when he resigned in 1999. Putin has continued to serve as the president of the Russian Federation with the exception of one term.

      In 2000, the Russian economy improved when it began to export vast quantities of natural resources, including oil, natural gas, metals, and timber. Foreign investment in Russia increased in the mid-2000s as the Russian economy grew. Although Russia began to establish itself as a significant contributor to the global economy, its infrastructure and manufacturing base requires modernization, its birth rate and life expectancy remain low, and poverty and social problems affect much of the population.

    • Unit 3 Assessment

  • Unit 4: North America

    The region of North America includes the United States and Canada, which have similar physical characteristics and a history of colonialism. These two countries comprise more than 13 percent of the world's total landmass. North America is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the west, and the Arctic Ocean to the north.

    The population in North America has highly urbanized: approximately 80 percent of the population lives in cities. Most of North America's diverse population consists of immigrants or descendants of immigrants. The United States is the world's largest economy – Canada and the United States enjoy relatively-high standards of living.

    We begin this unit by exploring North America's physical geography, paying particular attention to its seismically active west coast, its water resources, the potential for sustainable agriculture, and the impact of fossil fuels on the landscape. Next, we explore the pattern of human settlement, the influence of European colonialism, and the institution of slavery. Then, we take a close look at industrial development, urban and suburban growth, patterns of inequality, and globalization.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

    • 4.1: Maps of North America

      Let's begin our examination of North America by studying some maps of the region and taking a brief quiz to check your understanding.

    • 4.2: North America's Physical Geography

      North America is divided into several physical regions with distinct landforms. Figure 4.1 illustrates the major regions of North America (we study Mexico, Middle America, South America, and the Caribbean in Unit 5).

      The Canadian Shield dominates the northern portion of North America. Geologically, this is the oldest part of North America; it is sparsely populated with poor soil. During the Ice Age, continental glaciation left the bedrock (the Canadian Shield) exposed when it removed the soil from this area and deposited it in southern Canada and the northern United States.

      The Appalachian Highlands separate the Atlantic Plain from the Interior Plains. The Rocky Mountains separate the Interior Plains from the Intermontane Plateaus. Years of erosion have made the Appalachians much less rugged than the Rockies, but they have influenced the history and development of the United States in major ways.

      The Pacific Mountains form the western border of the Intermontane Plateaus and North America. The west coast of North America lacks a coastal plain because it is an active tectonic plate boundary. Remember from Unit 1 that we generally associate tectonic activity with plate boundaries. Consequently, the west coast is characterized by earthquakes and volcanic activity. The coast is not.

    • 4.3: North American History and Settlement

      The United States and Canada share a history of settlement and colonization. The United States declared its independence from Great Britain in 1776 and marked the end of the Revolutionary War when the leaders on both sides signed the Treaty of Paris in 1783. France and Spain, the initial colonizers of the United States, helped their former colony gain its independence from the British.

      Canada achieved independence from Great Britain more gradually. In 1867, Britain named this area the Dominion of Canada, a confederation of the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
      Great Britain retained control over Canada's foreign affairs, and Canada did not become a fully sovereign country until 1982. The population chose to retain Great Britain's monarch as its symbolic head of state, but Canada has a permanent population, a defined territory, a centralized government, and forms its own relationships with other sovereign countries.

    • 4.4: Industrial Development in North America

      Although the pattern of industrialization in North America followed a similar path to what occurred in Europe, the process did not begin until the late 1700s. Economic activity was shaped by access to raw materials and waterways for transport. Like Europe, this shift had a profound effect on the human landscape, fostering rural-to-urban migration and the development of core industrial areas.

    • 4.5: The North American Urban Landscape

      The themes of colonization, immigration, rural-to-urban migration, industrialization, core-periphery, and deindustrialization have all contributed to the rise of high-density settlements. Although cities do not focus on manufacturing as they once did, they continue to have a lasting impact on the human and physical geography of North America. The pattern of urban growth often follows a radial pattern that coincides with transportation routes that radiate from the original center of what had previously been a walking city.

      When the streetcar was invented in 1888, people now had the ability to navigate their cities beyond the limitations of what was within walking distance of their homes. They could travel to jobs, shops, and services they wanted to access. Their only limitation was how far they had to walk to get to the stop for the streetcar.

      Streetcars meant cities were no longer confined to small, densely populated areas. Populations began to expand beyond the city center, a trend that continued as transportation opportunities increased and edge cities developed.

      People with automobiles who could afford to leave the old, urban areas began migrating further away from the city center. New suburban developments established their own job and shopping opportunities, which meant residents no longer needed to rely on the old city's central business district (CBD).

    • 4.6: Patterns of Economic Inequality in North America

      Urban and suburban living pose additional social and economic challenges. Inequalities are often clearly evident in these settings in addition to rural areas. The income gap between rich and poor has grown substantially, particularly since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

    • 4.7: North America's Global Connections

      The USMCA (United States, Mexico, Canada Agreement) strengthens this North American connection by making trade easier among these countries.

    • Unit 4 Assessment

  • Unit 5: Middle and South America

    Middle America is the geographic realm between the United States and South America. It consists of three main regions: the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America. The Caribbean, the most culturally diverse of the three regions, includes more than 7,000 islands that stretch from the Bahamas to Barbados. The four largest islands of the Caribbean are the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. Hispaniola is comprised of two halves: Haiti in the west and the Dominican Republic in the east. The smaller islands, extending all the way to South America, make up the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad is in the far south, just off the coast of Venezuela. The Bahamas are closest to the mainland United States.

    Central America refers to the seven states south of Mexico: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The Pacific Ocean borders Central America to the west, while the Caribbean Sea is on the east coast. Most of these countries straddle the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. However, Belize only has a shoreline in the Caribbean, and El Salvador is only in the Pacific.

    The continent of South America has diverse physical landscapes, from the Andes mountains to the tropical forests of the Amazon basin. Venezuela and Columbia have abundant precious metals and fossil fuels, while the Amazon basin is a source of lumber and, more recently, some of the largest iron-ore mines in the world. The massive plains of Brazil and the rich soils of the Pampas allow for enormous agricultural operations. Even the inhospitable Atacama region in northern Chile holds some of the world's largest copper reserves. The wide variety of climate zones allows for a diverse ecosystem, and the extremes of physical geography have created both barriers and opportunities for those who live there.

    In this Unit, we investigate the physical characteristics of Middle and South America. Then, we will explore the human landscape before colonization, including the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan Empires. We identify the effects of European colonialism, especially how Spanish colonizers influenced patterns of land-holding and urban development. This region is highly urbanized, so we learn about the phenomena of primate cities and megacities. Finally, we return to the themes of inequality and globalization within the context of Middle and South America.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

    • 5.1: Maps of Middle and South America

      We begin our examination of Middle and South America by studying some maps of the region and taking a brief quiz to check your understanding.

    • 5.2: The Physical Geography of Middle America and South America

      North, Middle, and South America would comprise a continuous landmass were it not for the Panama Canal, a human-made break in the Isthmus of Panama. Although the physical connection between Central America and South America appears fragile on a map, the cultural connection is strong.

      The physical landscape of Middle and South America is varied, ranging from volcanic islands to mountain ranges to tropical rainforests and deserts. It also includes agricultural regions such as the Pampas region of South America, prairie grasslands like Argentina's Patagonia, and the cenotes or sinkholes of the Yucatán peninsula. This region's rivers are some of the largest in the world by discharge volume. They include the Amazon, Orinoco, Rio Negro, and Madeira Rivers.

      The climate of this region varies considerably. For example, we often associate South America with the tropical Amazon Rainforest. However, most of the continent does not straddle the Equator. Because the South American continent extends from 12° N to 54°S, its climate varies and includes tropical, temperate, arid, cold, and polar climates. Furthermore, the local topography means there are variations within those climate types.

      Given the vast expanse of Middle and South America, it is not surprising that the physical geography of the region is varied. Here are some features.

      Atacama Desert

      Altiplano

      Altitudinal Zonation:

      • Tierra Caliente
      • Tierra Templada
      • Tierra Fria
      • Tierra Helada
      • Tierra Nevada

      Amazon Basin, Amazon River, Amazon Forest

      Archipelago

      The Caribbean Sea

      El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

      Isthmus of Panama

      Panama Canal

      Lake Nicaragua

      Greater Antilles:

      • Cayman Islands
      • Cuba
      • Jamaica
      • Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic)
      • Puerto Rico

      The Lesser Antilles:

      • The Bahamas
      • Leeward and Windward Islands
      • Leeward Antilles

      Mountain Ranges:

      • Andes Mountains
      • Sierra Madre Occidental
      • Sierra Madre Oriental
      • Sierra Madre del Sur

      Patagonia

      Oceans:

      • Atlantic Ocean (North Atlantic)
      • Pacific Ocean (East Pacific)

      Tectonic Activity:

      • Earthquakes
      • Volcanoes

      Tectonic Plates:

      • Caribbean
      • Cocos
      • Nazca
      • North American
      • South American

      Tropical Storms:

      • Hurricane

    • 5.3: The Panama Canal

      The Panama Canal is a critical connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. While its initial construction was deadly, the canal saves ships from having to travel around the southernmost tip of South America, Cape Horn, through the Drake Passage or the Strait of Magellan, or north through the Arctic Archipelago and the Bering Strait.

    • 5.4: Amazon River Basin

      Although many people associate the Amazon River Basin with Brazil, its area covers more than a third of South America, including Peru and Ecuador to the west, Bolivia to the south, and Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname to the north.

    • 5.5: The Atacama Desert

      The Atacama Desert (shown in yellow in Figure 5.5) is west of the Andes, primarily in northern Chile. Some of the outlying arid regions (shown in orange in Figure 5.5) extend into Peru and Bolivia. No rain has fallen in some parts of the Atacama in recorded history, making this area the driest place on Earth outside Antarctica. Because there are mineral resources in the desert, including copper and nitrates, there is some human activity there. Indeed, mining in the Atacama has proven to be quite lucrative.

    • 5.6: Earthquake and Volcano Hazards

      Like the west coast of North America, the west coasts of Middle America and South America coincide with active plate boundaries. The west coast of this region is tectonically active.

    • 5.7: Hurricane Hazards

      In addition to earthquakes and volcanoes, Middle America and northern South America are also prone to hurricanes, which are common in North America and other locations around the world (see Figure 5.13).

      Note that hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons are all types of tropical storms. The different names refer to their location: hurricanes form over the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific Ocean, cyclones form over the South Pacific and the Indian Ocean, and typhoons form over the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Thus, the tropical storms that strike China are typhoons, those in Mexico are hurricanes, and those in Madagascar are cyclones.

    • 5.8: The Colonization of Middle America

      Middle America is one of the world's ancient cultural hearths due to the contributions of the Maya and Aztec civilizations. As in North America, the European colonists profoundly affected the indigenous populations. While the rimland was accessible to European ships, the mainland's interior remained more isolated. These locations determined the style of agriculture, type of crops, and labor sources.

    • 5.9: The Colonization of South America

      Spain and Portugal colonized all of South America except for the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana). Spain focused on South America's west coast, which borders present-day Colombia because they had already colonized Middle America.

    • 5.10: Urban Development in Middle and South America

      In Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztec empire, temples, palaces, and public buildings dominated the city center while economic activities occurred on the periphery. The commoners in Aztec society lived on the urban periphery because many were engaged in agriculture.

      When the Spanish colonized Middle and South America, their model left members of the working class on the periphery but placed economic activities in the city centers.

      Here are some common elements of this model which still exist in many Middle and South American cities.

      • The marketplace or plaza is the city center.
      • Churches, government buildings, residences for the wealthy, and permanent stores define the boundaries of the plaza.
      • This plaza and the immediate perimeter that surrounds it constitute the city's core.
      • The income of each residential zone decreases according to its distance from the core.
      • Cities grow by adding concentric rings – fewer city services exist with each additional ring.
      • The poorest city residents live in barrios or favelas in the outermost ring, where there are no city services.

    • 5.11: Income Inequality in Middle and South America

      This section presents the recurring theme of income inequality in Middle and South America. Figure 4.13 from Unit 4 shows that Middle and South American countries share a high Gini coefficient with the United States. In some countries, such as Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Barbados, it is even higher.

    • 5.12: Patterns of Globalization in Middle and South America

      Middle America is well-connected to the region of North America. In July 2020, Mexico joined the United States, Mexico, Canada Agreement (USMCA), the successor to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). USMCA is a free trade agreement among the three countries. It facilitates increased cross-border trade and addresses agricultural produce, manufactured products, labor conditions, digital trade, and other provisions.

      Without question, the United States is Mexico's biggest trading partner. Canada is a distant second. Roughly 78% of Mexico's exports go to the United States, while only 3% go to Canada. USMCA is positive from Mexico's perspective, although the treaty requires Mexico to meet certain labor standards, such as a minimum wage requirement in the automotive industry. These labor provisions will marginally improve income inequality in Mexico. However, some are concerned the increased labor costs in the USMCA-related segment of Mexico's economy will impede aggregate productivity.

    • Unit 5 Assessment

  • Unit 6: Sub-Saharan Africa

    Sub-Saharan Africa includes the countries south of the Sahara Desert and many of the countries in the Sahel, or African Transition Zone. This swath of land demonstrates a climatic shift from the desert in the north to the savannas and tropics of the south. The geography and climate of this region play a critical role in the social and political life of its residents.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

  • Unit 7: North Africa and Southwest Asia

    The region of North Africa and Southwest Asia is incredibly wide and spans more than 100 degrees of longitude. Although its east-west extent is not as wide as Russia's, this vast area has connected Eastern Europe and Western Asia since 100 BCE. Consequently, this region has an extraordinary level of ethnolinguistic diversity.

    The region of North Africa and Southwest Asia includes countries in the sub-region of North Africa, with countries on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea: Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. It also borders the Atlantic Ocean, the Sahara Desert, and the African Transition Zone (the Sahel). Egypt's Sinai Peninsula includes territory in Africa and Asia. Southwest Asia also includes sub-regions.

    Because there are so many variations within this region, we occasionally focus on one sub-region to highlight some key concepts. Depending on the map you are studying, different countries are often categorized into different sub-regions.

    Here is a list of countries that comprise these sub-regions. Note that geographers may include different countries in these lists.

    • Caucasus: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan
    • Central Asia (also called Turkestan): Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan
    • Middle East: Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran
    • Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Qatar, UAE (United Arab Emirates), and Kuwait

    This region is also the hearth of the three largest monotheistic religions in the world and is home to sacred places for Christians, Jews, and Muslims. This proximity has caused centuries of conflict among religious and ethnic groups throughout a region that has its own history of conquest. Finally, we will apply the themes of urbanization and inequality, which we have studied throughout this course.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

  • Unit 8: South Asia

    South Asia is the birthplace of two of the world's largest religions: Hinduism and Buddhism. Today, South Asia also includes a large Muslim population and many followers of other religions. South Asia is an active region tectonically and home to Earth's highest mountains. It is also known for its monsoon winds. Like the other regions we have explored, South Asia has its own history of colonization that is still evident today. Religious and ethnic conflicts also characterize this region.

    In this unit, we explore and analyze the diverse physical, cultural, political, and economic characteristics of South Asia. First, we look at the physical geography of the region, paying special attention to its climate and the monsoon weather pattern. Then, we explore the region's population growth, including the pattern of urbanization and the impact of megacities.

    Balancing natural capital and population growth remains a major issue in the region. South Asia is highly populated, with about 1.8 billion people across a wide range of ethnic and cultural groups. We close out this unit by analyzing its globalizing forces.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

  • Unit 9: East and Southeast Asia

    The region of East and Southeast Asia is home to nearly one-third of the world's population. China is the largest country in the region in terms of area and population. The region is highly urbanized because many of the countries are small islands – it includes some of the largest, most densely populated cities in the world. The physical geography is diverse, although much of the region has a tropical climate. The region is tectonically active due to its proximity to the Ring of Fire, which has earthquake, volcano, and tsunami hazards.

    A history of colonialism within and beyond the region continues to influence its human geography. Like other regions, it is culturally diverse and sees conflicts among its ethnic and religious groups. Territorial disputes continue to this day, especially with respect to China. East and Southeast Asia is a critical player in the global economy because it is home to several global financial and electronics manufacturing centers. Generally, the region has a moderate level of income inequality. It includes the communist countries of China, Vietnam, and Laos.

    Because several countries are in various stages of industrialization, the associated environmental issues are particularly acute. Like the region of South Asia, the region of East and South East has incurred further environmental damage due to outsourcing. Overseas companies locate their production facilities in places like Vietnam, which results in air, water, and soil contamination.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.

  • Unit 10: Oceania

    The region of Oceania includes Australia, New Zealand, the islands of the South Pacific, Antarctica, and the world's oceans. This vast area has few human settlements compared to the other regions, but its physical geography is affected by human activities all over the world.

    Oceania shares several themes with the other regions, including colonialism, urbanization, globalization, and human-environmental interaction. Since the region is dominated by water, it includes issues of territorial claims over the world's oceans. Antarctica is also the subject of international claims. Australia and New Zealand have flora and fauna found nowhere else on Earth.

    There has been little industrial development in the South Pacific. Most of the islands in the South Pacific were claimed or colonized by the imperial powers of Europe, Japan, and the United States. They are considered peripheral to the overall global economy. Tourism is the major activity in the South Pacific, and research is the major activity in Antarctica. Both areas have opportunities for greater economic development in the future.

    Oceania is uniquely affected by climate change. Rising temperatures melt the polar caps, which in turn contribute to rising sea levels. Changes in precipitation patterns seriously affect the biodiversity of tropical islands in the Pacific, and changes in temperature affect agricultural activity and tourism.
    We explore the physical geography of this region by introducing its sub-regions before you read about them in the text: Australia and New Zealand, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Antarctica.

    This is a particularly difficult region to characterize due to its vast extent and the diversity of its physical geography. We begin with Australia and New Zealand because they dominate the region in terms of population. We move to the Pacific Islands and consider them as a group even though they are separated by great ocean distances. In spite of this separation, they have many characteristics in common and share many of the same challenges. Finally, we explore Antarctica separately because it is a continent like no other. As the coldest continent on Earth, with no permanent human habitation, Antarctica is one of the world's remaining frontiers.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

  • Study Guide

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