Topic outline

  • COURSE INTRODUCTION

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    • Time: 33 hours
    • Free Certificate
    This course explores visual art forms and their cultural connections across historical periods, designed for students with little experience in the visual arts. It includes brief studies in art history and in-depth inquiry into the elements, media, and methods used in a range of creative processes. At the beginning of this course, we will study a five-step system for developing an understanding of visual art in all forms, based on:

    • Description: A work of art from an objective point of view – its physical attributes and formal construction.
    • Analysis: A detailed look at a work of art that combines physical attributes with subjective statements based on the viewer's reaction to the work.
    • Context: Historical, religious, or environmental information that surrounds a particular work of art and which helps to understand the work's meaning.
    • Meaning: A statement of the work's content. A message or narrative to express the subject matter.
    • Judgment: A critical point of view about a work of art concerning its aesthetic or cultural value.

    After completing this course, you will be able to interpret works of art based on this five-step system, explain the processes involved in artistic production, identify the many kinds of issues that artists examine in their work, and explain the role and effect of the visual arts in different social, historical and cultural contexts.

    First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

  • Unit 1: Defining Art

    How do we define art? For many people, art is a tangible thing: a painting, sculpture, photograph, dance, poem, or play. Art is uniquely human and tied directly to culture. As an expressive medium, art allows us to experience a wide range of emotions, such as joy or sorrow, confusion or clarity. Art gives voice to ideas and feelings, connects us to the past, reflects the present, and anticipates the future. Visual art is a rich and complex subject, and its definition is in flux as the culture around it changes. This unit examines how art is defined and the different ways it functions in societies and cultures.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • distinguish between the form and content of an artwork;
      • explain aesthetics and the role it plays in different cultural conventions and perspectives;
      • explain the difference between subjective and objective responses to art;
      • define the categories of art, such as fine art, pop art, and decorative art;
      • recognize, describe, and evaluate artistic styles, such as naturalistic, abstract, and non-objective; and
      • discuss the capacity to reflect personally on art.

    • 1.1: Introduction and Definitions

      First, we need to ground ourselves with some key concepts to define our area of study. What do we mean by art, what is and what is not art, and why? Can anything be art based on anyone's subjective opinion, or are there some objective features of art we can generally agree on? Since art is as old as human culture, we have developed many specialized terms associated with its study over time.

    • 1.2: Form and Content

      Our understanding of art and how we explain it consists of a few qualities. First, there are descriptions and analyses of the features of a work of art. These are based on the perceptual qualities of the artwork (such as the composition's colors, shapes, or contrasts), the material they are made of, and the methods used to produce them. Secondly, there are interpretive aspects that are informed by culture. These interpretations can be unique to a given person, group, or society. Since most humans perceive art similarly across populations (by using our eyes and ears), there can be quite broad agreement as to the perceptual and material aspects of art, since these can be objectively verified.

    • 1.3: Aesthetics

      It is hard to separate art from conversations about it, which are also called the "discourses" of art. Art is saturated with concepts, histories, schools, movements, linkages to the history of ideas, debates about the nature of beauty, or judgments about what makes art "good" or "bad". Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with matters related to art. This term is based on the ancient Greek word aesthesis, which means "sensory experience". As you might expect, different cultures have produced different discourses on aesthetics: for example, what might have been considered beautiful in Indian art 500 years ago will likely be very different from what was considered beautiful in the European Renaissance or a 20th-century postmodern exhibit. The development of ideas is inextricably linked to the movements of culture, and aesthetics is affected by variations across social geographies and throughout history.

    • 1.4: Subjective and Objective Perspectives

      Interpretations of art can be subjective. Art is often controversial, mysterious, socially significant, or personal. These interpretations depend on other factors, such as the cultural background of the artist or viewer, the use of symbolic material, or the artistic consumption habits of its audience. The perceptual and material dimensions – the objective aspects of an artwork are described as its form, whereas the interpretive (subjective) components are its content. These categories, form and content, derive from Greek antiquity, where philosophers made the distinction between what something says (the content) and how something is said (its form).

    • 1.5: Artistic Roles

      Art performs certain common functions, such as recording faces and places – this will be familiar to anyone today who takes pictures with their smartphone. Images can also serve scientific purposes, such as capturing images of galaxies or microscopic organisms. Churches and temples are also full of artistic images that convey religious, mythical, and spiritual ideas.

    • 1.6: Artistic Categories

      Taking a broad view of the diversity of artistic practices, we can create categories of art that include art that is in the museums (such as paintings and sculptures), art we find on the streets (such as graffiti or billboards), art on our persons (such as jewelry, clothing, and fashion), and art in our homes (such as embroidery and rugs). Similarly, we can organize art into the categories of fine art, popular art, or decorative art, depending on the roles it fulfills along these social dimensions. We might consider a work of art important for cultural preservation and reflection (fine art), a type of popular communication (pop art), or a handicraft that ornaments or decorates items in our lives (decorative art).

    • 1.7: Artistic Styles

      We often expect art to depict something specific, such as when a portrait must resemble a certain person. We call this art's mimetic role, which comes from the Greek word mimesis and refers to creating a representation of something. But we also know that art often takes great creative liberties in representation. Many works impart all strong stylizations to the objects they represent. We call these artworks abstractions because their main goal is not to produce "accurate" mimesis. Finally, we have all experienced works of art that do not resemble anything at all from our everyday experiences. This kind of art may work with geometries, colors, or materials in ways that do not lend themselves to a clear interpretation. We call this kind of art non-objective because it foregoes any ties to objects we recognize.

    • 1.8: Cultural Styles

      With much artwork, you have a sense of its cultural background as soon as you see it. Sometimes a certain amount of expertise may be required. For example, something may seem "old and tribal" at first glance. You may not know what part of the world it is from until you read the description cards or consider the name of the museum wing it inhabits. Art embodies cultural values and beliefs. Cultures rely on their art as artifacts to serve as repositories for their values and beliefs. In this way, art and culture rely on each other for their full understanding.

    • 1.9: Perception and Visual Awareness

      We see biologically and neurologically – our eyes send information about the external world to the brain's visual processing centers. But we also see in personal ways that are informed by our social and cultural background. Both ways of "seeing" are important in art. For example, artists are highly sensitive to the nuances of form and color. They are also attuned to the ways certain audiences may react to their work. Artists often purposely challenge our usual ways of seeing and looking to produce extraordinary effects we are not accustomed to.

    • Unit 1 Assessment

  • Unit 2: Who Makes Art – Process and Training

    In this unit, we explore artistic processes in their social contexts, covering individual artists turning their ideas into works of art, forms of collaborative creative projects, public art, and the role of the viewer.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 1 hour.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • describe the role of the critic;
      • describe the role of the artist; and
      • discuss the social world of art.

       

    • 2.1: The Artistic Process

      Art does not come about on its own; rather, it emerges within a larger social space which includes various people who perform specific roles that are part of the artistic endeavor or process. Curators, critics, gallery owners, and collectors are just as important as artists for there to be an art world in the fullest sense. Institutions, such as art schools, publishers, and museums, outlive individuals and create a historical continuance of ideas and practices.

    • 2.2: The Individual Artist

      We often think of an artist as a lone, creative genius who does strange things in their studio, perhaps driven by intense psychological dramas. We can apply this description to many of the artists we read about or see in film throughout history. However, most artists are more like film producers or directors. They guide a process that several participants with specialized skills perform to realize the artistic endeavor. Instead of acting intuitively in wild fits of inspired creativity, most artists put considerable effort into the preliminary planning stages of their work, which ultimately shape what they will eventually produce.

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        The Individual Artist Page
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        Discussion Topic 3: The Artistic Process Forum
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        Watch at least five short videos from ART 21. Watch how the artists work and what they say about their processes. Then make a list that covers the following information:

        • List the artists you viewed.
        • Who surprised you the most?
        • Which artist was most concerned with the process of making the work?
        • Which artist was most concerned with creativity in the idea for their art or the work itself?
        • Which artist was most concerned with materials?

        Click on Discussion Topic 3 to post your thoughts.  After posting your response, you can leave a reply to the posts of your classmates as well. 

    • 2.3: Artistic Training Methods

      Centuries ago, we thought of artists as craftspeople. Painters and sculptors were organized into guilds. Their place in society was similar to other craft workers, such as blacksmiths and stone masons. In many cultures, artists learned through apprenticeship methods. Art education eventually made its way to become a formal academic discipline. These institutions now mint newly-degreed artists into the world every year. There are also many self-taught artists who create their own informal and personalized learning programs guided by their vision and passion.

    • 2.4: Art as a Social Activity

      As in the past, a single person does not usually create most of today's artworks. We immediately associate several art forms with large groups of people who are needed to complete them. Think of feature films or architecture. Artists must collaborate with non-artists, drawing members of the general public into their creative process.

    • Unit 2 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 2 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 3: How Art Speaks – Finding Meaning

    Art asks us questions and conveys meaning. It expresses ideas, uncovers truths, manifests what is beautiful, and tells stories. In this unit, we begin to explore the meaning behind particular works of art within the context of various styles and cultures. We introduce the conceptual tools professional art critics use to interpret art. During this activity, you will provide your own interpretation of a piece of art. You should return to this activity after you have completed this course and review your response.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 1 hour.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • identify the four levels of meaning in works of art: formal, subject, context, and iconography;
      • define the term context and discuss its essential role in finding meaning in art;
      • describe the six critical perspectives: structural, deconstructive, formalist, ideological, psychoanalytical, and feminist; and
      • explain the meaning of form and content.

    • 3.1: Objective vs. Subjective Meaning

      The distinction between subjective and objective information was key to the development of science and the philosophies that emerged during the Enlightenment (1685–1815). René Descartes (1596–1650), the French philosopher, clearly articulated this concept when he famously stated "I think, therefore I am". We realize the objective dimension of the world through our senses and through instruments that measure our environment. For example, using methods such as carbon dating, we can analyze the pigments artists used when they created cave paintings and arrive at objective determinations about when they were produced. We can also agree that certain stylistic features belong to a particular period of time. The subjective dimension is less tangible and rooted in our personal experiences. We not only encounter art as raw sensory data, but we also bring our own biases, expectations, needs, and prior art education when we formulate our judgments.

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        Discussion Topic 4: Form and Content Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1
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        How We See: Objective and Subjective Means Page
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        Read this section for more on the differences between objective and subjective viewing. Think about how these factors, as well as other aspects that make us individuals, play a role in shaping our personal and social subjective responses to a work of art.

    • 3.2: The Four Levels of Meaning: Formal, Subject, Context, and Iconography

      When we see any object, we can immediately understand its form: the physical attributes of size, shape, and mass. With art, this may first appear simple: we can separate out each artistic element and discover how the artist used it in their work. You practiced doing this in the last two units. The importance of this formal level of meaning is that it allows us to look at any artwork from an objective viewpoint. Artists use specific processes to create their artwork to achieve a certain perceptual effect. Most artists are keenly aware of the material properties of the media they work with. They understand the objective qualities and anticipate the subjective responses people will likely experience as they view the work.

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        First Level of Meaning: Formal Page
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        Read this text which explores how the formal qualities of an artwork relate to its material qualities and the way we perceive it. These attributes are inseparable from how we experience a work of art. Some artists emphasize their artwork's formal qualities so they become part of the foreground more than the background – we call this type of art formalist due to how it demonstrates concern for the perceptual and material components in art.

        We often group art into specific genres, or patterns of subject matter, that are found over time. Many of these genres are present in some cultures, but never present in others. These differences give us yet another lens for finding meaning when we approach these types and patterns of art.

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        Second Level of Meaning: Subject Page
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        We can subdivide what we call content into categories we call subjects. Over time, we say certain artworks show evidence of specific genres (typical subjects of art), such as landscapes, portraiture, or street photography. The popular genres of film are sci-fi, romantic comedy, and mystery. Subjects organize the traditions that express how we create certain artistic pieces and influence our expectations of art.

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        Third Level of Meaning: Context Page
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        This text highlights the importance of understanding the context in which art is made. Pay close attention to the context, which is an important theme in this course. The context describes an artwork's interconnections with other pieces of art and other aspects of society.

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        More on Context Page
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        Read this short article and watch the video, which explores the key dimensions of context as it differs between artists and viewers. How do the contextual factors differ between viewers and artists?

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        Fourth Level of Meaning: Iconography Page
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        Artists incorporate iconography to convey deeper meanings into their work through simple visualizations. Iconography uses symbolism to generate narrative, which in turn develops a work's meaning. Many artworks use common symbols (iconography), which incorporate meanings that a culture widely shares. These individuals recognize the iconography and can decode the symbols.

        As you read this text, think about some iconographies you are familiar with. What unifies the iconographies presented in this reading?

    • 3.3: Critical Perspectives

      Art criticism is part of the intellectual tradition in most cultures. Each of these traditions provides key concepts and methods of analysis.

      • Structural criticism considers art as a system of elements that are composed together, like a language or set of repeating forms. Artworks are comprised of stable, recurring cultural codes that an art critic decodes.
      • Deconstructive criticism focuses on the differences among artworks that prevent them from forming stable structures of meaning.
      • Formalist criticism analyses the material and perceptual attributes of art and its associated experiences.
      • Ideological criticism seeks out power and social imbalances. For the artist, art is a way to perpetuate worldviews that need to be challenged.
      • Feminist criticism focuses on gender inequality and roots out forms of patriarchy that appear in art.
      • Psychoanalytic criticism traces the patterns of conflict between consciousness and the unconscious and seeks aspects of personality in the art that are beyond subjective control and which subvert social personas.
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        Critical Perspectives Page
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        This article expands on some of the most important perspectives in art criticism: structural, deconstructive, formalist, ideological, psychoanalytical, and feminist.

    • Unit 3 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 3 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 4: How Art Works – The Principles of Visual Language

    In this unit, we study the terms used to describe and analyze any work of art. We will explore the principles of design – how the artist arranges and orchestrates the elements they use. Just as spoken language is based on phonemes, syntax, and semantics, visual art is based on elements and principles that, when used together, create works that communicate ideas and meaning to the viewer. We can think of them as the building blocks of an artwork's composition – the organized layout of an image or object according to the principles of design.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • define and describe artistic elements and principles of design; and
      • compare and contrast artworks from different cultures using the language of art.

    • 4.1: The Basic Elements

      When we consider art's formal aspect (materials, the methods used to work them, and their perceptual effects), we can distinguish the basic units (called elements) from the various principles used to combine elements. Elements proceed from the simple to the complex: from a point to a line, to a planar shape, to mass, to a figure or ground distinctions, and so on. In a given work of art, these fundamental formal units relate to one another on a second, higher level. Artists arrange them according to principles of design, such as balance, repetition, emphasis, unity, variety, and so on. The key point to understand here is that there is a fundamental conceptual distinction between simpler formal elements and the general rules or patterns for how they are combined, which we call the principles of design.

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        The Point Page
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        Read this text, which discusses the most basic visual element: the point.

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        The Line Page
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        When you put two or more points together, you create a line between them. Put more lyrically, a line is a point in motion. Read this text on the many different types of lines and their functions in art.

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        Shapes and the Figure-Ground Relationship Page
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        Read this discussion of shape and how artists use shapes to articulate figure-ground relationships in artworks.

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        Mass Page
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        Read this discussion of mass and its significance for two- and three-dimensional works of art.

    • 4.2: Space, Value, Color, and Texture

      In this section, we introduce the various kinds of space that artists represent in their works and the different techniques of perspective they use to create the illusion of space on a two-dimensional (2D) surface. Space is an intuitive concept in many ways – after all, we experience everything in some kind of space. In art, however, space is a construction built according to specific techniques and intentions. Space is also a cultural variable. Some cultural contexts are less interested in the accurate modeling of real space and more interested in psychological rendering.

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        The Element of Space Page
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        As you read this text, pay attention to the many ways we can articulate space in visual art.

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        The Element of Value Page
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        Read this discussion of value or the relative lightness or darkness of shape when you compare it with other elements in the work.

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        The Element of Color Page
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        In this article, we discover color theory, which artists use to guide the composition and combination of colors in art.

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        The Element of Texture Page
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        Read this discussion of texture or the tactile sense we get from the surface of a shape or volume, such as smooth, rough, velvety, or prickly.

    • 4.3: The Principles of Design

      Now let's explore the artistic principles or how an artist arranges and orchestrates the elements in a work of art. These elements include visual balance, repetition, scale and proportion, emphasis, time and motion, unity, and variety.

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        Artistic Principles Page
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        There are many aspects of the formal dimensions of art, what we often consider the rules of composition or the perceptual laws grounded in gestalt psychology. These general principles provide an analytical language and lens which we use to analyze art from any cultural origin. They are grounded in our perception and the materials of the chosen medium. Read this introduction.

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        Balance Page
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        Read this article to get a sense of the three kinds of visual balance artists incorporate in their artworks: symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

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        Repetition Page
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        Read this text which discusses the dual role repetition plays in art: artists use it to organize and plan the artistic elements and to create interest or command attention.

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        Scale and Proportion Page
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        Like repetition, the element of scale and proportion is a planning tool artists use to add an attractiveness that commands the attention of the viewer. Read this discussion.

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        Emphasis Page
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        Read this text to see how artists use the element of emphasis to express the main idea of their artwork.

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        Time and Motion Page
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        One problem artists face when creating static (singular, fixed images) is how to imbue them with a sense of time and motion. Some traditional solutions to this problem employ the use of spatial relationships, especially perspective, and atmospheric perspective. Artists also use scale and proportion to show the passage of time or the illusion of depth and movement.

        For example, as something recedes into the background, it becomes smaller in scale and lighter in value. Also, the same figure (or another form) repeated in different places within the same image gives the effect of movement and the passage of time. Read this explanation of time and motion.

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        Unity and Variety Page
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        An artwork is strongest when it expresses an overall unity in composition and form – a visual sense that all the parts fit together; that the whole is greater than its parts. Read this section to learn more.

      • forum icon
        Discussion Topic 5: Objective Description of Artistic Principles Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1

    • Unit 4 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 4 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 5: Artistic Media

    Artists find all sorts of ways to express themselves and use almost any resource that is available. Making extraordinary images and objects from various but somewhat ordinary materials is a mark of creativity. Using charcoal, paper, thread, paint, ink – and even found objects such as leaves – artists continue to search for ways to construct and deliver their message. In this unit, we look at artworks created from two- and three-dimensional media and artworks made using different types of cameras.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • identify and describe specific characteristics of the media that artists use;
      • explain how the advance of technology affected art practices;
      • explain the effect photography had on traditional artistic media;
      • differentiate between two-dimensional and three-dimensional media;
      • explain the technologies, aesthetics, and techniques that define photography as an artistic medium; and
      • explain the technologies, aesthetics, and techniques that define time-based photographic imagery in video, film, performance, and installation.

    • 5.1: Two-Dimensional Media

      No painting or drawing is "purely" two-dimensional (2D) since all surfaces have a thickness and 2D planes are a geometric abstraction. However, in 2D or planar-surface-based art, the thickness of the medium is of no or very little importance. With 2D art, we only pay attention to the image rendered on the surface of the medium (paper, canvas, wall, etc.) in its height-by-width aspect ratio.

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        Drawing Page
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        Read this text about drawing, the simplest, most efficient, and oldest way to communicate visual ideas.

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        Painting Page
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        Read this text about painting. Did you know that there are six major distinct painting mediums? Those who live in Western societies tend to think about painting when they first think about art.

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        Printmaking Page
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        This article examines three basic techniques of printmaking: relief, intaglio, and planar.

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        Collage Page
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        Read this article to understand the development of collage, a relatively new approach to creating 2D media.

      • forum icon
        Discussion Topic 6: The Medium is the Message Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1

    • 5.2: The Camera

      Photography is a relatively-new medium that originated in the 19th century. It is easy to view and understand the changes it wrought. For example, photography made portraiture, which had been very expensive to produce, accessible to the larger population. Many photographic portraits emulated painting styles. Photography freed painters by allowing them to do more with paint than simply copy reality. It opened up new avenues toward abstraction and non-objective art.

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        Discussion Topic 7: Here a Photo, There a Photo, Everywhere a Photo! Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1
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        Early Development Page
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        Read this text, which describes the historical development of the camera.

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        Effects on Other Media Page
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        Read this article to learn how photography changed how artists use two-dimensional media.

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        Form and Content Page
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        Photographers must consider form and content just as much as artists in other mediums. Read this text to learn more.

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        Darkroom Processes Page
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        This section discusses the difficulties inherent in photography and details of the processes that occur in the darkroom.

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        The Human Element Page
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        Read this text to explore how photography can recreate images as the human eye sees them. This human element is an enduring central theme in photography.

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        Color Images Page
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        Read this text which explains how color film changed the aesthetics of photography, which had been primarily based on black and white (greyscale) before 1935.

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        Photojournalism Page
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        Because it enables artists to replicate and reproduce many copies of reality, photography lends itself to reporting on human events via photojournalism. Read this text to learn more.

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        Modern Developments Page
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        Camera technology has changed at a rapid pace. Barely three generations after Edwin Land invented the instant camera in 1947, smartphone companies began putting cameras (sometimes more than one!) in their phones. Read this text to learn more about these technological developments.

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        Time-Based Media: Film, Video, and Digital Page
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        Read this article, which introduces the time-based representations film and video brought to art and the impact computers and digital technology have had on the visual arts through software and interactivity.

      • forum icon
        Discussion Topic 8: Film Study Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1

    • 5.3: Three-Dimensional Media

      Three-dimensional art adds depth to height and width. For example, artists use depth to cut a stone figure against its background material, create a space for performance art, or place objects in a room as in installation art. Three-dimensional art activates all three dimensions of physical space in a way that is different from two-dimensional art.

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        Definitions, Processes, and Sculptures Page
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        Read this overview of three-dimensional (3D) art, which includes much more than sculpture.

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        Types of Sculpture and Three-Dimensional Media Page
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        Read this section on the main types of sculptural media. Make sure you can identify them by name.

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        Methods Page
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        This article details the major methods of creating three-dimensional art: carving, casting, modeling, and construction (sometimes called assemblage).

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        Modern Variations of Three-Dimensional Media Page
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        Read this text, which explains that installation art and performance art are varieties of three-dimensional art.

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        Decorative Arts Page
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        Decorative art is the final kind of three-dimensional art we examine. As you read this text, consider how decorative art is different from other kinds of two- and three-dimensional art we have discussed so far in this course.

      • forum icon
        Discussion Topic 9: Form and Content Forum
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        Make forum posts: 1

    • Unit 5 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 5 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 6: Architecture

    In this unit, we explore architecture, its history, and its relation to visual art. Architecture is the art and science of designing structures and spaces for human use. Architectural design is an art form realized through considerations of spatial design and aesthetics. Related to sculpture, architecture creates three-dimensional objects that serve human purposes and form visual relationships with the surrounding areas.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • explain how the form of architecture affects the use of a structure;
      • describe traditional and modern styles of architecture and the effects of the Industrial Revolution on architecture;
      • explain how architecture acts as a reflection of culture;
      • describe how new "green" technologies are changing architecture and design; and
      • describe recent periodizations of architectural history during the past century.

    • 6.1: What is Architecture?

      Architecture is the art and science of designing structures and spaces for human use. Architectural design is an art form in itself realized through considerations of spatial design and aesthetics.

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        Architecture Page
        Students must
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        Since buildings support human functions, their forms usually demand different approaches to their design of structure. For example, in the past, cathedrals incorporated tall ceilings to maximize the amount of outside light penetrating their interior spaces to create a heavenly presence. Achieving this effect required new inventions, such as vaulted ceilings and flying buttresses. Similarly, central train stations, built with iron trusses and skylights, were designed to accommodate many tracks and trains for the thousands of passengers who use them on a daily basis. Their busy lives required convenient and frequent travel between cities. The forms of architecture typically serve the functions they accommodate, and designers seek out optimal structures that support their function.

    • 6.2: Traditional Methods and Materials

      Since prehistory, people have manipulated the materials in their local environment to create expressive dwelling places.

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        Methods and Materials Page
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        Read this text, which introduces traditional architectural methods and materials.

    • 6.3: Architecture in China and East Asia

      When we travel to other countries, we are often impressed with how different buildings look based on their geographic location. These differences indicate the cultural backdrop that framed how and why they were created. While their general functions may be similar – for worship, military defense, education, work, or housing – the uniqueness of cultures means their architecture displays unique forms that are well-suited to their cultural environment – forms that distinguish them from those produced elsewhere.

    • 6.4: Cross-Cultural Influences

      Comparative analysis of art looks carefully for similarities and differences in similar art forms across different cultures. For example, you might compare the art on temples in Hindu and Buddhist cultures or compare Christian churches with Jewish synagogues. We can analyze any cultural artifact for similarities and differences in various cultural contexts, such as textile patterns, paintings, sculptures, or films.

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        Cross-Cultural Influences on Architecture Page
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        We can make verifiable statements about formal qualities, such as materials and methods used or their perceptual effects. Moving beyond this, you might seek patterns, such as when one culture influences another through trade or migration. We often find common archetypes in images and narrative artifacts from a diversity of cultural sources. However, it is important to remain grounded in evidence and not leap to conclusions that may reflect personal or cultural biases.

        This article presents several examples of how the migration and interaction of peoples from different cultures have affected architecture.

    • 6.5: Architecture and the Industrial Revolution

      The Industrial Revolution (1760–1840) prompted new needs and capabilities for architecture and infrastructure. During this period, workers adopted new techniques, and the ability to mass-produce building components created new possibilities for steel-based frames and concrete that would radically increase the scale of built structures. These buildings were inherently different from those that were previously built out of stone or wood and assembled with much less technological apparatus.

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        Architecture and the Industrial Revolution Page
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        Steel and reinforced concrete meant spans could be larger, loads could be heavier, and more forceful stresses withstood. Contemporary architects and designers wanted to fully embrace new materials and methods. For better or worse, many refused to remain tied to forms based on earlier technologies and deemed traditional styles of ornament and decoration unsuitable.

        Read this text, which discusses the changes that took place in architecture during the Industrial Revolution.

    • 6.6: Modern Architecture: A New Language

      Modernist architects rejected the ornament and decorative elements past historical styles had adopted. Rather, they embraced the use of contemporary materials and methods to create a style dissociated from the past which addressed the present. A popular Modernist idea was that homes should be like "machines for living".

    • 6.7: Post-Modern and Contemporary Architecture

      Postmodern architects rebelled against the austerity and rationality of modernist architecture. They believed architecture should use symbols and ornament that played with cultural ideas – implementing them with less seriousness and gravitas than earlier movements, such as neoclassical and neo-gothic architecture. This allowed them to reincorporate the world's architectural heritage into contemporary building design. They often fused ornamental and symbolic aspects with modernist design, so buildings could still fulfill their functional roles.

    • 6.8: Green Architecture

      Green architecture incorporates ecologically and environmentally sustainable practices into site preparation, materials, energy use, and waste systems.

      A building is a system. We may think of them as structures, offices, or homes, but they support human activity by assembling several functions that address a variety of human needs. Typical building systems include heating, cooling, lighting, ventilating, and powering, and may include recycling rainwater or supporting a living roof. Each of these systems involves methods and technologies we can trace to the origins of architecture. However, today's more ecologically-informed era would deem most of these systems unsustainable. Green or sustainable design looks for new ways and approaches that minimize the harmful environmental impact of traditional building systems.

    • Unit 6 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 6 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 7: Our World – Nature, the Body, Identity, Sexuality, Politics, and Power

    In this unit, we explore how artists express and interpret our world. If nothing else, visual art provides an avenue for self-expression. As a primary source of inspiration, artists express attitudes, feelings, and sentiments about their environment through personal experiences, social interaction, and relationships with the natural world. In short, art helps us perceive and react to our place in the world. In Unit 1, we referred to description as one of many roles art adopts, but description is often imbued with the artist's subjective take on the world. In this unit, we examine how art operates as a vehicle for human expression – a kind of collective visual metaphor that helps us define who we are.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • explain how using animals and other natural phenomena in art offers clues to cultural differences; and
      • explain how political art uses nature, the body, identity, sexuality, politics, and power for public reflection.

    • 7.1: Identity

      We typically associate identity in art with forms of portraiture or representations of human bodies and faces. Artists convey information about their human subjects through expression and pose. We often respond directly to art's language of identity based on our familiarity with human representation in our everyday lives. Sometimes, deeper cultural meanings are obscured and require additional narrative and analysis for understanding. In this section, we focus on art and identity, which is a recurring theme in this course.

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        Identity Page
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        Read this text for an overview of the theme of identity in art.

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        Art and Identity Page
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        Read this chapter for an in-depth discussion on this aspect of art. Make sure you can identify the ways artists use identity as a source for their material.

    • 7.2: Self-Portraits

      Self-portraits indicate an artist's inward gaze as they present a view of themselves to the world. The representation of self may bear a close resemblance to sensory experience (such as a photograph based on similar optical principles as the eyes), or they may seem highly abstract (for example, when an artist uses patterns of DNA sequences to reflect a new kind of contemporary portrait of the self). Part of our role as those who experience art is to come to grips with the kinds of self-knowledge we can obtain from works of art.

      • page icon
        Self-Portraits Page
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        Read this text for an overview of self-portraits.

    • 7.3: The Natural World

      Nature and the objects of nature (such as landscapes, animals, or flora) have been a source of artistic inspiration for as long as history. Think of the animals depicted in cave paintings in France many thousands of years ago. This natural subject matter can range from highly-idealized and stylized imagery, such as animals representing gods and the force of nature, to a very different kind of aesthetic treatment, such as in scientific illustrations grounded in the accuracy of representation.

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        Nature Page
        Students must
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        Read this article, which introduces how the natural world has inspired artists throughout time.

    • 7.4: Social, Collaborative, and Political Art

      Artworks are often grounded in themes, such as when an artist wants to make a particular or generalized statement about their social or political situation. For example, they may borrow from thematic material to challenge certain political beliefs or activities. During artistic forms of social discourse, debates rage about sex and power, politics and violence, and nature and the body. Artworks take creative positions in the public space. You can see examples in almost every form of artistic expression, including poetry, plays, film, murals, paintings, and popular music.

      • page icon
        Social and Collaborative Art Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text which describes the role art can play in society and how artists often collaborate to amplify and extend the reach of their message.

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        Politics, Conflict, and War Page
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        View

        Read this text which explains how artists often depict their experiences in politics, conflict, and war in their works of art. They become documents, signifiers, and symbols of power, remembrance, culture, and national pride.

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        Memorials Page
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        Wartime typically gives rise to memorials that serve as vessels of remembrance of those who died. These memorials provide touchstones for families, friends, communities, and entire nations to grieve. As works of art, they offer a public space to honor and remember the lives and sacrifices of those who fought during the war. Read this text to see some examples.

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        Peace Page
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        View

        Artworks that engender ideas of peace and tranquility take many forms. View some excellent examples in this text.

    • Unit 7 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 7 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 8: Other Worlds – Mortality, the Spirit, and Fantasy

    Humans use art to capture ideas about worlds outside our own. Art can be a vehicle for myth, which uses narrative to convey truths about human nature. Art also expresses hard-to-articulate aspects of spiritual worlds, which are products of religious practices. Cultures use iconography to symbolize abstract ideas, such as dreams, love, power, and emotion, and societies call on the artist to create them. Art also plays a significant role in rituals and ceremonies. In this unit, we explore how artists materialize human thought, belief, and imagination through art.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • describe how artists incorporate ideas of the spirit in their art;
      • discuss art as a form of myth; and
      • explain linkages between mythical and spiritual subject matter to human psychology.

    • 8.1: Myths

      We derive myth from the Greek word mythos, which means story. Most cultures preserve collections of stories to preserve their most ancient historical backdrop. We sometimes call them folk tales or heroic epics. These stories help us define our cultural identity on a grand scale across space and time, such as by tying people to territories and relating current events to the old creation myths. We retell myths, legends, stories, and songs to highlight the more durable features of human character and general patterns of life that recur across the generations.

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        Myths Page
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        This article discusses art that represents mythic figures and mythological stories.

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        Mythical Meaning in Art Page
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        As you read this chapter, focus on the "Symbolism, Iconography, and Visual Literacy" and "Symbolism and Iconography in Mythology and Storytelling" sections to learn more about the role myths play in art. Why do you think artists who live in much later periods find the myths of antiquity so appealing?

    • 8.2: Dreams

      The influence of dreams in art is significant. Dreams provide creative subject matter for visual artists and play an additional role in art through ceremony and ritual. For example, William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream continues to be a popular play from Elizabethan literature.

      • page icon
        Dreams Page
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        Dreams have always had a strong appeal in culture – we can interpret them as divine messages of a deeply spiritual kind or as material psychoanalysts scrutinize for clues about mental disorders. For example, surrealist artists draw on both kinds of ideas. They believe dreams are "the royal road to the unconscious" – they simultaneously invoke art's ancient origins and use more contemporary scientific approaches to explore dreamlike material in their visual works. Read this text for more explanation.

    • 8.3: Spirituality

      We often make general distinctions between the major, organized religions – Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism – which we associate with global identities and hierarchical social institutions, and the myriad rituals and ceremonies which are unique to smaller, diverse tribes or groups which trace their beliefs and practices back for millennia. Whether they are religious or spiritual in character, artworks that express this facet of human existence invoke questions about human nature and the nature of the cosmos.

    • Unit 8 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 8 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Unit 9: Art in Time and Place – The Western and Near Eastern World

    The era and location where a work of art was created often determine the formal and stylistic aspects of the piece. In this unit, we study the evolution of art in time and place in the Western world. We will help you develop the tools you need to identify major formal and stylistic trends that punctuate the timeline of Western art history. This approach will allow you to witness the relationship between works of art and their specific social-historical contexts. You will also see a certain continuum that runs through Western art from Ancient Greece to modern times.

    Completing this unit should take you approximately 14 hours.

    • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

      • associate different artistic styles with specific geographies, eras, beliefs, and historical events;
      • link artworks and artists based on historical and geographic contexts;
      • describe the key stylistic features of major art periods and movements;
      • associate artistic styles and movements within their historical sequence and progression; and
      • describe the prominent characteristics and aesthetic developments of art since the 20th century.

    • 9.1: The Earliest Art

      We can trace the oldest human artworks back tens of thousands of years, where we find examples of art that humans wore, handled as objects of ritual, or used to create immersive spaces or environments, such as in painted caves. However, art-making practices probably extend far beyond what we have discovered in the archaeological record. Every few years, new discoveries reset our horizons of the earliest known art. Interpreting the meaning of these objects beyond simple decorative items is often unknowable since their connections to the cultural and symbolic systems are absent. We can only guess by comparing them to other objects we have discovered that are accompanied by additional explanations.

      • page icon
        Prehistoric Art: Paleolithic Origins Page
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        This article will give you a sense of how art and representation have been an inherent part of human activity since the Paleolithic period. Note that many of the paintings we have recovered from this time tend to revolve around the themes of game, hunting, and fertility.

    • 9.2: Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt

      The art of Egypt and the Ancient Near East is often associated with the first recorded civilizations. This history depends on the writing systems that have preserved our knowledge of the past. Writing – which we see in tablets, papyrus walls, temple walls, and other media – provides a rich background for helping us interpret the meaning of the artworks from these times.

      • page icon
        Cuneiform and the Invention of Writing Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on the significance of the Ancient Near East in the development of the written word and the emergence of figural representation. How did writing technologies change our society and culture?

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        Sumerian Art Page
        Students must
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        Read this essay on the art associated with Sumer's oldest known cities, Ur and Uruk. What do these works say about the importance and role of administrative organizations in these early societies, as is reflected in their artifacts?

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        Victory Stele of Naram-Sin Page
        Students must
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        Watch this video, which describes an important military victory commemorated in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin. Why do you think military victories were such an important topic in the sculpture of this time?

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        Law Code Stele of King Hammurabi Page
        Students must
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        Read this article, which describes Hammurabi's rise to power and the stele on which his legal code was inscribed. Pay attention to the new ideas that began to emerge during this time and the role this new medium played in shaping society.

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        The History of Ancient Egypt Page
        Students must
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        Read this article, which discusses the emergence and longevity of ancient Egyptian society and culture. Why do you think Egyptian artistic styles were so long-lasting, given what you know about their society and its history?

      • page icon
        Egyptian Art Page
        Students must
        View

        Read about the aesthetics and social function of Egyptian art. What were the main social roles of art in Egypt?

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        Materials and Techniques Page
        Students must
        View

        Read about the methods and materials for producing Egyptian sculpture. Make sure you can describe the different processes involved.

    • 9.3: Art in Ancient Greece and Rome

      The societies and cultures of Greece and Rome provide the origins of what we consider Western civilization. In Greece, we find elements of science, philosophy, and theories of democracy. The Greeks developed ways of thinking about the world that surpassed mythology toward more abstract beliefs about the world. The Romans built on this Greek tradition and created their own conception of a republican form of government. These democratic processes were more indirect and tied to the expansion of one of the world's largest empires. To sustain empire building, the Romans produced innovations in roads, viaducts, and architecture, which often incorporated Greek artistic elements.

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        Ancient Greece and Rome Page
        Students must
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        This article and video introduce the 900-year period of antiquity. They discuss the emergence of Greece and Rome and their respective arts. Notice how classical themes from antiquity emerged during later eras, such as the Renaissance, Romanticism, and Academicism.

      • page icon
        Geometric Greek Krater Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the Greek krater vase, one of this period's most abundant and well-documented artifacts. Note the different styles of these vases as they evolved over time and their many uses in daily life.

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        The Kouros Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the Greek kouros sculptures, which represented ideas of male beauty. What was new in the development of this art form?

      • page icon
        Polykleitos' Doryphoros Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on Roman sculpture and its relationship to its Greek precedents. We often compare Greek and Roman art due to the strong influence of Greek artists in Rome. What is similar and different in the styles of the Greeks and Romans?

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        Nike of Samothrace Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the sculpture Nike of Samothrace and its reconstruction. How much would a major reconstruction of the art change the original experience and meaning?

      • page icon
        Augustus of Primaporta Page
        Students must
        View

        This video and article discuss the sculpture Augustus of Primaporta, its connection to Greek aesthetics, and the Roman political context. What ideas about Roman political culture are manifest in the artwork?

    • 9.4: Art During the Middle Ages

      Empires wax and wane throughout time. We call the period between the Fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of science the Middle Ages (500 to 1500). These are useful bookends on the historical timeline, but we can also interpret the Fall of the Roman Empire as the relative decline of its Western capital in Rome and the rise of its Eastern capital in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), which was the center of Byzantine art. It also refers to the period when Christianity had spread throughout all of Europe and many other areas of the world, including Africa, the Middle East, and further.

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        Early Christian Art Page
        Students must
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        Read this excellent introduction to the art that was created during this time of early Christianity. Can you explain the main difference between the art of this era and the preceding ones?

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        Early Christian Art and Architecture After Constantine Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article, which discusses the importance of the legalization of Christianity by Constantine for the development of Christian art. Note the impact of the political realities on developments in art.

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        Byzantine Art: Justinian and His Attendants Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which describes a mosaic in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Byzantine art refers to art that bears the influence of the Byzantine Empire's Christian art style. Mosaic was one of the preferred mediums of Byzantine art. What are the formal qualities of this art form? Why do you think it was a medium of choice during the early stages of Christianity?

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        Barbarian Art Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on the different populations in Europe during the Middle Ages. What did the word Barbarian refer to?

      • page icon
        Fibulae Page
        Students must
        View

        A fibula (the plural is fibulae) is a brooch or pin used to fasten garments, typically on the right shoulder. Read this article on the formal qualities associated with Barbarian art through examples of one of its common artistic objects.

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        Ottonian Art Page
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        This article explores the cultural and artistic developments during the Saxon Empire. What forms remind you of Barbarian art, and what forms remind you of Roman art? What historical background can help explain the varied elements of style present in Ottonian art and architecture?

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        Romanesque Architecture Page
        Students must
        View

        The name gives it away: Romanesque architecture is based on Roman architectural elements. The rounded Roman arch is the literal basis for structures built in this style.

      • page icon
        Gothic Art Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article to understand the role that some forms of sculpture played in Gothic architecture. How does the sculpture of this period differ from earlier ones?

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        English Gothic Architecture Page
        Students must
        View

        This article discusses the architectural innovations associated with the Gothic style of architecture. Many of the advances in building techniques that took place during the Gothic period were achieved with the goals of building higher structures and creating brighter interiors.

    • 9.5: European Art During the Renaissance

      The word renaissance means revival. In the context of art history, the Renaissance period (the transition period between the Middle Ages and modernity during the 14th and 16th centuries) marked a return to the dominance of classical (Greek and Roman) styles in art, literature, and architecture. Mimesis – the accurate, even scientific, representation of form we discussed in Unit 1 – became increasingly important in the visual arts while the architectural styles of the Greeks and Romans were revitalized. Many factors led to this resurrection, including the rediscovery of classic works, new technological innovations, and increased interactions among different areas of Europe.

      • page icon
        Cimabue's Trinita Madonna and Giotto's Ognissanti Madonna Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video to understand the new formal qualities that characterized art during this transitional phase between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

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        Florence in the Early Renaissance Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this to learn about the intellectual climate of the Renaissance.

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        Masaccio's Holy Trinity Page
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        Masaccio's painting Holy Trinity exemplifies the ideals of the Early Renaissance in Florence, Italy.

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        Flanders Page
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        Read this short article about Flanders (an area in Europe that includes today's Belgium and parts of the Netherlands), which was the site of another "renaissance" in European art.

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        Campin's Merode Altarpiece Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video to get a sense of how the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance influenced the artists who lived in Northern Europe.

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        High Renaissance Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this introduction to the art of the High Renaissance. What distinguishes the art of this time period from that created during the earlier Renaissance? What new ideas were the artists expressing during this time?

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        Raphael's School of Athens Page
        Students must
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        Raphael was one of the masters of the High Renaissance. This article explains why his work is considered so emblematic of this period.

      • page icon
        Leonardo Da Vinci's The Last Supper Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article and watch the embedded video describing Leonardo Da Vinci's famous painting The Last Supper. How does this artwork exemplify High Renaissance values?

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        Michaelangelo's David Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video which describes Michelangelo's sculpture David. How does Michelangelo's work differ from that of Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, two famous Italian painters of this time?

    • 9.6: Baroque and Rococo Art

      We associate Baroque art with an increase in intricacy and complexity in the arts, while the Rococo style added to these Baroque tendencies toward pleasure, delight, and playfulness. Both are notable for their great attention to detail and decorative elaborations. Baroque originated in the Catholic Church – it was intended to contrast with the seriousness of Protestant art during the Reformation and was meant to play up a stronger sense of life and emotion. Rococo art was often meant for indoor domestic spaces and was generally more secular in its themes compared to Baroque art.

      • page icon
        Baroque Art: Holland vs. Flanders Page
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        Watch this video, which discusses and compares artworks from Protestant Holland and Catholic Flanders. How did the different religious contexts of these two regions affect the form and content of their artworks?

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        Baroque Art in Italy Page
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        This article explains the historical forces at play in the creation of the exuberant Baroque style in Italy during the 17th century.

      • page icon
        Poussin's Landscape with Saint John and Rape of the Sabines Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video to get a sense of the distinctive classicizing style of French art during the 17th century.

    • 9.7: 18th and 19th Century European Art

      During the 18th and 19th centuries, we saw a more rapid progression of several different styles and schools of creative thought. They ultimately created a background for abstraction, formalism, and conceptualism in the 20th century. This period began with continuances of various neo-classic traditions, but rebellion against the Industrial Revolution began to emerge with Romanticism. The final major art movements of the 19th century, including Impressionism, began by producing highly abstract imagery where light effects were of greater interest than the representation of objects and people.

      • page icon
        Rococo Page
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        Rococo is characterized by a light, erotic, exuberant style that emerged in 18th-century France. Watch this video and read the text to review an example, The Swing by Jean Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806).

      • page icon
        Neoclassicism Page
        Students must
        View

        In contrast to Rococo, Neoclassical art is stark, classicizing, and idealistic.

      • page icon
        Romanticism Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video for a discussion of the Romantic style as it emerged in 19th-century Europe. Pay attention to the distinction between the Romantic style and the Neoclassical style.

      • page icon
        The Industrial Revolution 1848–1907 Page
        Students must
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        This video describes various art styles associated with the rapidly-changing European societies of the second half of the 19th century. Note the innovations associated with Realist, Impressionist, and Post-Impressionist art.

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        Becoming Modern Page
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        Read this article, which discusses the forces that helped shape what we call Modernism and some of its characteristics.

    • 9.8: Modern Art: Realism vs. Academic Art

      With the rise of denser, industrialized, and heavily populated urban centers, we saw the emergence of subject matter that is "grittier" in its realism compared to traditional mimetic approaches. Instead of using an accurate representation of figures, forms, and spaces to embody classic ideals and values, artists began presenting reality as they experienced it every day. However, in academic salons, classical values continued to dominate the application of mimetic techniques.

      • page icon
        Realism Page
        Students must
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        Read this article to learn why, how, and when Realism emerged as an artistic movement.

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        Gustave Courbet Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on an important Realist work by Gustave Courbet (1819–1877). What makes this work an especially good example of the Realist movement in art?

      • page icon
        The Stonebreakers Page
        Students must
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        Read this article to get a sense of why we consider Realism a socially-conscious artistic movement.

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        Édouard Manet Page
        Students must
        View

        After Courbet, Édouard Manet (1832–1883) is historically the most significant Realist painter. Watch this video about one of his works.

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        Édouard Manet's Olympia Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video and read the accompanying article, which discusses an important artwork by the Realist painter Manet. Pay attention to the painting's modern characteristics and how its contemporary audience reacted.

    • 9.9: Impressionism

      Impressionism set the stage for greater degrees of abstraction in art, followed by Cubism and the New Objectivity art periods. It is hard to understand Impressionism without appreciating the effects photography had on painting. Once the camera allowed anyone to produce accurate imagery, artists began looking for new realms of creativity to expand their craft. Photography competed with the skills painters had for producing portraits and landscapes. Impressionism emerged just a few decades after photography came into widespread use. While photographs operated on the scientific, objective principles of light, Impressionism manifested the subjective, personal experience of light as its subject matter.

      • page icon
        Impressionism Page
        Students must
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        Read this article on Impressionism, the movement that emerged after Realism. What were the main ideas that drove the development of this new artistic movement?

      • page icon
        Claude Monet Page
        Students must
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        Watch this video, which discusses a series of paintings done by artist Claude Monet (1840–1926) that are good representatives of the Impressionist movement as a whole.

      • page icon
        Pierre-Auguste Renoir Page
        Students must
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        Watch this video about a historically-significant painting by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919). A still image of Moulin de la Galette is provided so you can study the points the video makes more closely.

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        Berthe Morisot Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which discusses the artist Berthe Morisot (1841–1895) and her painting The Cradle, which she painted in 1872.

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        Mary Cassatt Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which discusses the American painter and printmaker Mary Cassatt (1844–1926) and her painting In the Loge, which she painted in 1878.

    • 9.10: Post-Impressionism

      The Post-Impressionists pushed the tendencies toward abstraction even further than the Impressionists. They created a naturalistic sensibility in their rendering of light and separated color from form as an object of artistic concern. Like the Impressionists, they emphasized the artificiality of painting as a construct. They often tied emotional and symbolic meanings to their use of color, which often produced a sense of form's disintegration. Post-Impressionists often used much bolder (and thus less natural) colors in their art, aiming for a more expressive impact.

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        Paul Cézanne Page
        Students must
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        Watch this video and read the article, which discusses a painting by the Post-Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne (1839–1906). Note Cézanne's relationship to older artistic traditions and how he reflected on visual traditions (including Impressionism) and innovated through form.

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        Vincent Van Gogh Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which describes the structure and color in Vincent Van Gogh's (1853–1890) painting Portrait of Joseph Roulin.

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        Paul Gauguin Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which discusses artwork by Post-Impressionist painter Paul Gauguin (1848–1903). How is Gauguin's use of color innovative, according to the authors?

      • page icon
        Georges Seurat Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which discusses artwork by Georges Seurat (1859–1891). What characteristics of his famous painting A Sunday on La Grande Jatte (1884) were a reaction to Impressionism?

    • 9.11: The Early 20th Century

      The 20th century witnessed more distinct periods of art and style compared to any previous period in the history of art. This was a time of unprecedented technological and social change. The world experienced two world wars, the development of nuclear weapons, revolutionary paradigm shifts in the sciences (including relativity and systems theory), and an explosion of new representational media, including film, television, and radio.

      There was an increasing acceptance that "anything goes", as exemplified by Marcel Duchamp's urinal, which was presented as a sculptural artifact in 1817. By the 1950s, visual art had been entirely emancipated from mimesis of any kind of connection to reality in its embrace of pure form. Figurative art was not entirely replaced by abstract art. Rather, what we see happening in the early 20th century are processes of continuous transformation of approaches to figurative art as new art movements recontextualize expectations around the role of representational techniques with each new artistic movement.

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        Italian Futurism Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on Futurism in Italy.

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        Fauvism Page
        Students must
        View

        This article introduces Fauvism, whose painters believed art had become too gloomy and needed a lighter and brighter emotional spirit.

      • book icon
        Inventing Cubism Book
        Students must
        View
      • page icon
        Surrealism Page
        Students must
        View
      • page icon
        Dali, The Persistence of Memory Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which discusses Dali's famous surrealist painting The Persistence of Memory.

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        Latin American Art Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text, which introduces Latin American Art.

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        Mexican Muralism Page
        Students must
        View

        At the end of the Mexican Revolution, the government commissioned artists to create art to educate their population about Mexican history. Between the 1920s and 1950s, David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896–1974), Diego Rivera (1886–1957), and José Clemente Orozco (1883–1949) – "los tres grandes" – created elaborate Mexican murals to celebrate the Mexican people's potential to craft the nation's history.

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        Geometric Abstraction in South America Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on geometric abstraction from South American artists.

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        American Realism Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text on American Realism, a style we see in the art, music, and literature of the time that conveyed social realities and the lives of ordinary people.

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        Winslow Homer Page
        Students must
        View

        Winslow Homer (1836–1910) was an American landscape painter and printmaker. Watch this video analyzes the message and technique of his painting The Life Line.

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        Thomas Eakins Page
        Students must
        View

        Thomas Eakins (1844–1916) was an American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and educator. Read this essay which examines his painting The Champion Single Sculls (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull).

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        Henry Ossawa Tanner Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text on Henry Ossawa Tanner (1859–1937), one of the first African-American painters to gain international acclaim.

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        The Ashcan School Page
        Students must
        View

        Let's explore the Ashcan School, a movement that featured art that was populist, expansive, and committed to documentary realism during this period. These artists focused on the newly-arrived immigrants, dockworkers, nightclub performers, saloonkeepers, boxers, and average workers who lived in New York City's Lower East Side and the Bowery. Read this text which offers an introduction.

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        George Benjamin Luks Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video which details the work of George Benjamin Luks (1867–1933), an American painter.

      • page icon
        George Bellows Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text on the American painter George Bellows (1882–1925). Bellows became famous for his bold depictions of urban life in New York City. He was one of the leading young members of the Ashcan School. The Metropolitan Museum of Art states that "although Bellow's Art was rooted in realism, the variety of his subjects and his experiments with many color and compositional theories, and his loose brushwork, aligned him with modernism".

      • page icon
        291– Little Galleries of the Photo Secession Page
        Students must
        View

        This article describes the gallery of American photographers Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) and Edward Steichen (1879–1973) that opened at 291 Fifth Avenue in New York City. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, these artists created "energized and powerful pictures reflective of a new and exciting modern world". They responded to the "avant-garde art of Europe and stimulating developments in skyscraper construction, industry, machines, transatlantic travel, and widespread urbanization in New York".

      • page icon
        Alfred Stieglitz Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which describes the unique perspective Stieglitz brought to his work.

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        Dorothea Lange Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which describes how a powerful photograph by the American photographer Dorothea Lange (1895–1965), Migrant Mother, changed how Americans viewed the Great Depression.

        Lange was best known for her work during the Depression era for the Farm Security Administration, which documented and humanized the hardships Americans experienced during this period.

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        Georgia O'Keeffe Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the American painter Georgia O'Keefe (1887–1986), who painted The Lawrence Tree in 1929 when she was visiting the British author D.H. Lawrence at his Kiowa Ranch in New Mexico.

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        Franklin Carmichael Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this text on Franklin Carmicheal (1890–1945), a Canadian artist who was famous for the bold colors of his watercolors.

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        Robert Henri Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this essay on Robert Henri (1865–1929), an American painter and teacher who was a leader in the Ashcan movement.

      • page icon
        Jacob Lawrence Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000). Lawrence was one of the first African-American artists to gain broad recognition in the segregated art world of the 1940s. He is renowned for his serialized projects, including The Migration of the Negro (1940–41) and War Series (1946–47), among other works.

    • 9.12: World War II and Beyond

      The rapid expansion of various art movements, including conceptualism, minimalism, and postmodernism, continued after World War II. Nazi Germany's attempt to reject 20th-century art by calling it "decadent" proved to be a brief reactionary moment. However, this rejection did continue in Soviet and communist societies, which officialized "socialist realism" as the only state-legitimized aesthetic. In free societies, artists continued to experiment and push the boundaries of what we consider art. They incorporated multiple media, popular culture, new technologies, and conceptualism. They even presented ideas about art rather than actual artwork.

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        Art in Nazi Germany Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on how Nazi Germany influenced the art world and how concepts of decadent art promoted a state-sanctioned view of art.

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        Abstract Expressionism and the New York School Page
        Students must
        View

        Let's explore Abstract Expressionism and the New York School. Make sure you focus on the ideas that informed the artists associated with this movement.

      • page icon
        Robert Rauschenberg Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008), an American painter and graphic artist.

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        Jackson Pollock Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), an American painter who became a central figure in the abstract expressionist movement.

      • page icon
        The Painting Techniques of Jackson Pollock Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video, which demonstrates the drip-style painting technique Pollock created and championed. He was one of America's most iconic and influential painters.

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        Robert Motherwell Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on Robert Motherwell (1915–1991), an American abstract expressionist painter, printmaker, and editor.

      • page icon
        Dorothea Rockburne Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video interview of the Canadian abstract painter Dorothea Rockburne (1932– ), where she discusses her art, mathematics, magic, and the materials she uses. She was part of an artistic movement called Minimalism.

      • page icon
        Thelma Johnson Streat Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the American painter Thelma Johnson Streat (1912–1959), who painted Girl with Bird in 1950. Streat was an African-American artist, dancer, and educator who was known for her art, performance, and work to foster intercultural understanding and appreciation during the 1940s.

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        Sullivan, Carson, Pirie, Scott Building Page
        Students must
        View

        In these final sections of our course, we explore some famous architectural achievements before World War II. Pay attention to the historical periods and geographic contexts. This article describes the Chicago School, which was responsible for the early skyscrapers that graced the Chicago skyline.

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        Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this article on the Villa Savoye, which Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (1887–1965), the Swiss-French architect known as Le Corbusier, designed and built in Poissy, France, in 1929.

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        Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this essay on the home Fallingwater, which Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959), the famous American architect, designed in Mill Run, Pennsylvania, in 1937.

      • page icon
        Mies van der Rohe, Seagram Building Page
        Students must
        View

        Watch this video on the architectural history of the Seagram Building, which Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), the German-American architect, designed in New York City in 1958.

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        Maya Lin, Vietnam Veterans Memorial Page
        Students must
        View

        The following materials explore architecture after World War II. Pay attention to the historical periods and geographic contexts. Let's begin by watching this video on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., which Maya Lin (1959– ), an American designer and sculptor, designed in 1982.

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        Venturi, House in New Castle County, Delaware Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this essay on the Vanna Venturi House, which Robert Venturi (1925–2018) designed for his wife in 1964 in Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania.

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        Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Bilbao Page
        Students must
        View

        Read this essay on the Guggenheim Bilbao, which you can visit in Bilbao, Spain. Frank Gehry (1929– ), the Canadian-American architect, designed this famous museum which opened to the public in 1997.

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        Zaha Hadid, MAXXI National Museum of XXI Century Arts, Rome Page
        Students must
        View

        Finally, read this essay on the MAXXI National Museum of XXI Century Arts in Rome, Italy. Zaha Hadid (1950– ), a British-Iraqi architect, designed this museum that opened in 2010.

    • Unit 9 Assessment

      • quiz icon
        Unit 9 Assessment Quiz
        Students must
        Receive a grade

        Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

        • This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
        • You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
        • You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

  • Study Guide

    This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walks through the learning outcomes, and lists important vocabulary. It is not meant to replace the course materials!

  • Course Feedback Survey

    Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses. If you come across any urgent problems, email contact@saylor.org.

  • Certificate Final Exam

    Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

    To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

    Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate.

  • Saylor Direct Credit

    Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course. This course is eligible for college credit through Saylor Academy's Saylor Direct Credit Program(opens in new window).

    The Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam requires a proctoring fee of $5. To pass this course and earn a Credly Badge and official transcript (opens in new window), you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on the Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times, with a 14-day waiting period between each attempt.

    We are partnering with SmarterProctoring to help make the proctoring fee more affordable. We will be recording you, your screen, and the audio in your room during the exam. This is an automated proctoring service, but no decisions are automated; recordings are only viewed by our staff with the purpose of making sure it is you taking the exam and verifying any questions about exam integrity. We understand that there are challenges with learning at home - we won't invalidate your exam just because your child ran into the room!

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    1. Desktop Computer
    2. Chrome (v100+)
    3. Webcam + Microphone
    4. 1mbps+ Internet Connection

    Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a Credit-Recommended Course Completion Certificate and can request an official transcript.