ENGL210 Study Guide

Navigating the Study Guide

Study Guide Structure

In this study guide, the sections in each unit (1a., 1b., etc.) are the learning outcomes of that unit. 

Beneath each learning outcome are:

• questions for you to answer independently;
• a brief summary of the learning outcome topic;
• and resources related to the learning outcome. 

At the end of each unit, there is also a list of suggested vocabulary words.

How to Use the Study Guide

1. Review the entire course by reading the learning outcome summaries and suggested resources.
2. Test your understanding of the course information by answering questions related to each unit learning outcome and defining and memorizing the vocabulary words at the end of each unit.

By clicking on the gear button on the top right of the screen, you can print the study guide. Then you can make notes, highlight, and underline as you work.

Through reviewing and completing the study guide, you should gain a deeper understanding of each learning outcome in the course and be better prepared for the final exam!

Unit 1: Audience Analysis

1a. Analyze an audience

• Why is it important for writers to analyze their audience?
• What aspects of your audience should you consider as you draft your message?
• How should the demographic traits of your audience influence how you shape and deliver your message?
• Name four types of audiences for technical documents.
• Define scientific or technical jargon.

Who are you writing for? Analyzing your audience is an important first step to drafting and communicating a clear and effective message. Your presentation is clearer when you choose relevant information and when you understand and appeal to your audience in ways that ensure they can comprehend and act upon your message. Your content, tone, and style should reflect the relationship you have with them. For example, the letter you send your lawyer should look and sound different from the one you send your grandmother.

Create a streamlined message. What does your audience already know about the subject? You do not want to bore them with information they already know, or irrelevant content only you find interesting. Also, if your audience is unfamiliar with your topic, you probably need to provide more context so your presentation makes sense and they can make a decision or take action.

Audiences are more engaged if your message demonstrates you respect their time and intelligence and reflects their personal and professional interests and experiences. While you must be careful about making incorrect stereotypes, demographic traits, such as age, gender, and education level, can help you decide what to include and predict how your audience will receive your message.

There are four types of audiences for technical documents:

1. Experts know everything there is to know about the topic. They use and understand scientific or technical jargon, and acronyms related to the field. They typically circulate in academic, research, and government audiences and may have difficulty communicating to nonspecialists.
2. Technicians put the ideas, designs, and theories of experts into practice. Since they build, operate, and repair products, they are familiar with and may even write technical manuals. They could be middle-management employees who write and draft policies and procedures.
3. Executives make decisions and may have little technical knowledge about your topic. You do not want to overload them with too much technical information – they just need enough to make a sound decision.
4. Nonspecialists may lack a breadth of technical knowledge and decision-making power, but they are curious about the subject-matter and would like to learn more.

To review, read Getting to Know Your Audience and Audience Analysis.

1b. Select appropriate tone, language, and format to reach a given audience

• How do you choose appropriate words to create an appropriate tone for your audience?
• How do the principles of design help you format your message?
• What are the four purposes for professional communication?

To create an appropriate tone, think about the status of your audience. For example, if you are writing to your professor or supervisor, you may want to use a more formal, professional tone, with appropriate jargon and more complex sentences. However, if you are writing to an employee or colleague, you may use a more conversational tone, less complex language, and a more simple sentence structure.

There are six conventions when choosing appropriate words for your audience:

1. Connotation: The meaning of the words you use should be clear and should not evoke any unintended meanings or emotions.
2. Jargon: Experts expect to hear jargon, such as acronyms and technical terms, but nonspecialists do not. Make sure the jargon you use mirrors your audience's subject knowledge.
3. Slang and idioms: Avoid using slang and idioms since they can be confusing to some readers, especially to non-native language speakers.
4. Sub-categorization: Nouns and verbs should follow each other clearly.
5. Selectional restrictions: Nouns should be clear, concrete, and specific.
6. Confusing word pairs: Use the correct word in a word pair, such as homonyms (to, too and two, or their and there).

Formatting a message appropriately comes down to implementing principles of document design:

• Contrast: Changes in font, color, and layout help readers focus on important information.
• Repetition: Repeat colors, shapes, columns, headers, and callout boxes to help organize your message.
• Alignment: Use columns and justification to balance the position of your text and images in the document.
• Proximity: Group or chunk information that belongs together since it helps focus your message and reduce clutter.
• Minimalism: Be brief and concise; do not overload your document with image-rich content since it will distract readers from the information you want to convey.
• Visuals: Provide just enough visuals to emphasize important information and engage your audience.

Professional writing has four purposes:

1. Valuing messages focus on building relationships with your audience, such as sending a thank you note.
2. Consulting messages acknowledge that a change is imminent (such as to a policy or procedure) and request assistance adapting to the change.
3. Informing messages teach or inform audiences about tasks, such as processes and policies.
4. Directing messages are typically from a supervisor and direct a response from the audience.

To review, see Word Choice, Principles of Design, and Purpose.

1c. Determine effective content for a message

• What factors determine the content of an effective message?
• What rhetorical appeals can you use to support your content?

The greatest factors that determine the content of an effective message are what your audience knows and needs to know and your purpose for writing the message.

Writers use three rhetorical appeals to support the content of their message:

• Pathos appeals to your audience's emotions. Use pathos to add energy and variety to your message, but do not use too much in your business communication; you want to keep your message brief and succinct. Some issues carry strong feelings, so do not overdo it. Keep in mind that generating too much anger, and making lengthy appeals to pity or sympathy, can offend your audience. Appeals to pathos are most effective during introductions and conclusions but are useful throughout.
  
  
• Logos appeals to your audience's sense of logic and reason. Use appeals to logos to make your argument more plausible and reasonable in a way that it holds up under scrutiny. Make sure you scrutinize the reliability and accuracy of any information you use.
  
  
• Ethos appeals to your credibility and authority (or someone else's). In business communications, you want to develop a relationship with your readers based on trust. You can do this by appealing to your professional education and experience, personal experiences, and, in some cases, someone's character.

To review, see Purpose, Getting to Know Your Audience, Audience Analysis, and What to Think about When Writing for a Particular Audience.

Unit 1 Vocabulary

• Alignment (formatting)
• Audience
• Connotation
• Consulting message
• Contrast (formatting)
• Demographic traits
• Directing message
• Ethos
• Executive audience
• Expert audience
• Idiom
• Informing message
• Jargon
• Logos
• Minimalism (formatting)
• Nonspecialist audience
• Pathos
• Proximity (formatting)
• Purpose (rhetoric)
• Repetition (formatting)
• Selectional restrictions
• Slang
• Sub-categorization
• Technicians audience
• Tone
• Valuing message
• Visuals (formatting)
• Word Choice
• Word Pairs

Unit 2: Internal Communication: Writing Memos and Emails

2a. Characterize communication types according to their suitability for particular communication needs

• When is it most appropriate to send a memo?
• When is it most appropriate to send an email?

Employees send memos to communicate brief, internal messages to a large audience, such as to announce a meeting, organizational change, policy or procedural update, or other important information. Organizational leaders may send an official memo to quell a rumor or other wide-scale speculation before misunderstandings arise.

We send emails for internal and external communication. Emails can be brief or lengthy and are quite malleable for most purposes. Emails are useful tools for messages that are longer than a memo and to conduct business outside the organization. Many businesses send automated emails for regular communication, such as to disseminate monthly reports. Many companies have synchronous chat networks so colleagues can exchange information quickly and easily, especially among small groups and teams.

Ask the following questions to determine if an email is appropriate:

• Is your message long, emotionally-charged, or does it contain highly-confidential information? If so, it may be more appropriate to communicate via a letter, a phone call, or a face-to-face meeting.
• How many emails does the recipient receive each day and what will make them read (or delete) your message?
• Will your recipient deem your email message important, an annoyance, or a waste of time?
• Does the formality and style of your writing fit the expectations of your audience?
• How will your message appear when it reaches the receiver? Is it easy-to-read? Have you used correct grammar and punctuation?
• Did you divide your thoughts into discrete paragraphs and highlight important items, such as due dates, in the text?
• Did you provide enough context for your audience to easily understand and follow the thread of your message?
• Did you identify yourself and make it easy for the reader to respond appropriately?
• Will the receiver be able to open and read any attachments?

To review, see Memorandums and Letters, Text, E-mail, and Netiquette, and Questions to Ask Yourself Before Sending an Email Message.

2b. Compose and format emails and memos

• How are memos organized and formatted?
• How are emails organized and formatted?

Memos must be easy-to-read. Most are formatted using a standard block-style (paragraphs are not indented) with a fairly simple organizational structure.

• The title at the top is simply MEMO.
• The heading is justified on the left margin and includes separate lines for:
  • To:
  • From:
  • Date:
  • Subject:
• The subject line should succinctly reflect the content and purpose of the memo.
• The message should include an introduction, body, and closing.
• The introduction is a brief statement that explains why you are writing the memo and the main point of your message. It expands on the subject line.
• The body elaborates with details and an explanation of the problem and solution. It lists the recommendations for action that need to be followed or taken.
• The closing focuses on results, next steps, how to respond, and other future actions.

Once you decide to send an email and have considered your audience, you are ready to write your message. The format resembles a memo: you need to fill in the "To" and "Subject" lines, but the "From" and "Date" are entered automatically. Enter the email address of your reader in the "To" line, but remember to include a greeting in the body of the message, such as "Dear Professor", and a sign-off, such as "Sincerely". The subject line should convey the main point of your email in a few words so recipients can quickly grasp the topic of your message in their inbox. Avoid ambiguous one-worded subject lines, like "Hi".

Use the cc: (carbon copy) line to send the same message to several recipients. Note that every recipient will see the email address of every other recipient when they open your message.

This list can be long if you have many recipients (forcing them to scroll down to your message), and many recipients prefer to remain anonymous for privacy reasons. However, you may have valid reasons for wanting everyone to see this information. Perhaps, you want to alert the recipient to the others who are reading the message (such as a supervisor) or you may want all of the recipients to have the email addresses of the others on the list.

It is usually a common courtesy to put your email recipients in the bc: (blind copy) line when you are sending an email to a large group of people. Most recipients do not wish or need to see the email addresses of the other recipients.

Email organization is the same as for a memo, with an introduction, body, and closing.

• The introduction is a brief statement that explains why you are writing the memo and the main point of your message. It expands on the subject line.
• The body elaborates on the details, problem, and solution. It lists the recommendations for action that need to be followed or taken.
• The closing focuses on results, next steps, how to respond, or any other future action.

Review the block-style in Creating a Block-Style Business Memo, memo organization in Memo Tutorial and Sample Memos, emails in Effective E-mail Communication.

2c. Apply best practices for both emails and memos

• Name some best practices to follow when writing a memo.
• Name some best practices to follow when writing an email.

Memo best practices are:

• Keep your subject line clear, brief, and specific. 
• Surround your message with white space to make them easier to read.
• Use block paragraphs, keep them short, and include a line space between them.
• Use bulleted lists to convey information more succinctly.
• Avoid using emotional language.
• Avoid using vague words: be concise and specific in your word choice.
• Try to convey only one topic per memo.
• Pre-write, draft, proofread, and revise your memo before you send it.

Email best practices are:

• Keep the subject line clear, brief, and specific.
• Use proper salutations to avoid confusion among recipients.
• Be succinct.
• Divide your message into short paragraphs, separated by a line space.
• Avoid using all caps which are difficult to read and are received as shouting.
• Avoid using text message abbreviations, such as LOL or U.
• Pre-write, draft, proofread, and revise your email before you send it.
• Consider drafting and revising emails in a separate document to make sure you do not send an unfinished draft by mistake (especially those that include sensitive or controversial information).
• Test any links you include before you send them to make sure they work and ensure you are sending the proper version of any draft materials.
• Let your recipient know if you are sending a large file so they can notify you if it does not transfer.
• Reply to email messages promptly, usually within 24-hours.
• Never reply in anger. Wait to respond. Close the message and reread it again later: it is easy to make improper assumptions when reading emails out of context. 
• Use "Reply All" sparingly.
• Close with a signature.

To review, see Basic Memo, Effective E-mail Communication, and Text, Email, and Netiquette.

2d. Recognize some ethical dilemmas posed by electronic communication

• Define personal data and encryption.
• What steps should you take to protect privacy when communicating by email?
• Define confidentiality and explain why it is an ethical concern.
• Define electronic record-keeping and explain why it is important.

Since emails can contain a lot of personal data, you should take steps to protect your privacy and that of your email recipients. For example, you might use encryption software, or an email server that encrypts your email between your computer and the server, to prevent your personal data from being distributed to the general public. However, the server (and government agencies) can access your data without your knowledge via the server's encryption key. To combat this, Andy Yen recommends you create your own encryption keys, so you own the data and access to the content.

Your employer may require you to sign a confidentiality agreement, in addition to following their code of conduct or ethics. Confidentiality is a safeguard that protects you and your employer from betraying the trust of your readers, clients, colleagues, and supervisors. For example, confidential messages could include proprietary knowledge your organization owns, the financial data of a client, or your own medical or personnel records.

You are ethically and contractually obligated to protect this data when you create internal reports and external promotional materials. For ethical reasons, during written and oral presentations, you should relay all information (positive and negative) to present an accurate picture of the subject. You should never intentionally mislead your audience, even if the purpose is to persuade them to buy a product, or support a policy or procedure change.

Keeping accurate records will help protect you and your organization against questions about confidentiality and other ethical breaches. The rules and regulations vary by industry and individual company policies. For example, many private and public offices have certain legal requirements for electronic record keeping. This "paper trail" can protect your interests and document customer service issues.

To review, see Think Your Email's Private? Think Again, Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources, and Electronic Record-keeping.

Unit 2 Vocabulary

• Block-style (memos)
• CC and BCC
• Confidentiality agreement
• Electronic record-keeping
• Email
• Encryption
• Memo
• Personal data
• Subject Line

Unit 3: External Communication: Formal Letters

3a. Characterize communication types according to their suitability for particular communication needs

• When is writing a formal letter appropriate?
• What are the most common formal letters and when are they most suitable to use?

Formal letters in a business and legal context demand considerations that differentiate them from other genres. However, like most business communications, they should be crisp, succinct, and accurate because readers have a limited time to read them. Recipients want to know the bottom line and how they should respond. 

Since your communication may be the first impression you make, you should write a formal letter if you have a business or legal relationship.

The most common formal letters are job application letters, inquiry letters, and complaint and adjustment letters.

Job candidates present job application letters (or cover letter) with their resume to connect their qualifications and experiences they list with the responsibilities and prerequisites in the position opening.

There are two kinds of cover letters:

• An objective letter identifies the position you are seeking, expresses your interest in having an interview, and mentions that a resume is attached.
• A highlight letter summarizes key relevant information from your resume and makes the case that you are the best candidate for the position opening.

Inquiry letters or emails are documents you send to someone who has the information you need.

There are two types of inquiry letters:

• Write a solicited inquiry when you want to learn about the products, services, or procedures a business or agency advertises. Your recipients should be prepared to respond.
• Write an unsolicited inquiry when the recipient has done nothing to prompt your inquiry. For example, you may seek help from an expert you have not met. Your recipient may not be as prepared to handle your request.

We typically send complaint and adjustment letters (and emails) in a customer service context. You may request compensation due to problems with a purchase or the services you received. An adjustment letter refers to the response you receive from a business when it cannot grant what you have requested.

To review, see Business Letters, Job Application Letters,  Inquiry Letters, and Complaint and Adjustment Letters.

3b. Compose and format a formal letter

• How do you format a formal letter?
• What elements comprise a formal letter?

Most formal letters include the following components:

• The heading should include the author's address and the date the letter is sent.
• The inside address presents the name and address of the recipient.
• The salutation addresses the recipient directly.
• Use a block letter format (paragraphs are not indented) and skip a line between paragraphs.
• The body includes the message you want to convey.
• The complimentary close is your sign off, such as "sincerely" or "respectfully yours".
• The signature block includes a separate line for your signature, name, and business title.
• End notations may include the word "enclosures" if additional documents are attached, or the initials of the typist.

Composing your letter should involve three steps: prewriting, drafting, and revising.

Prewriting may require outlining your potential message or free-writing your message before organizing it.

Begin drafting your message by organizing the body of your letter. Try to capture your reader's attention immediately by stating your main business, purpose, and subject matter in the first one or two sentences. If you are responding to a letter you received from the recipient, identify the letter you are referring to in the first sentence with the date it was sent.

Keep your paragraphs short, since most people read formal letters quickly. Your paragraphs may even comprise only one sentence. The first sentence of each paragraph should clearly identify the topic, followed by more information. Compartmentalize the contents of your letter into paragraphs, since each paragraph should have its own clear topic. Do not bury important information in long paragraphs.

Always close your letters with an action ending: tell your readers what you expect them to do, and by when. Be specific and clear about what you need.

Example of a Professional Letter

Review the format and composition of formal letters in Business Correspondence.

3c. Apply best practices to formal letters

• What are the best practices of formal letter writing?

There are several techniques for writing effective formal letters:

• Use the block-style format.
• State your purpose in the first sentence.
• Use pronouns to humanize your writing.
• Use a professional, but compassionate tone by:
  • Focusing on the reader's needs.
  • Using the active voice.
  • Apologizing when you, or your company, have done something wrong.
  • Using words, such as "regret" and "unfortunately", when delivering bad news.
  • Avoiding pompous, inflated, or legal-sounding phrasing.
  • Keeping your language plain, but avoid slang.
• Use present tense to create a sense of urgency when giving instructions.
• Write in short paragraphs or sections. Paragraphs should be three to eight lines long. Use headings if you think they will help the reader.
• Study each paragraph for its purpose, content, and function. Split paragraphs that discuss more than one thing into two. Join short separate paragraphs that do the same thing into one.
• Use bulleted lists to highlight topics and identify elements in a series, such as a set of procedures.
• The end of your letters should be action-oriented, such as identifying what you expect the recipient to do by a certain date.

Review these best practices Writing Effective Letters and Business Correspondence.

Unit 3 Vocabulary

• Action-ending
• Adjustment letter
• Block letter format
• Compartmentalize, paragraphing
• Complaint letter
• Complimentary Close
• End notation
• Formal letter
• Heading
• Highlight letter
• Inquiry letter
• Inside address
• Job application letter
• Objective letter
• Salutation
• Signature block
• Solicited inquiry
• Unsolicited inquiry

Unit 4: Using Visuals to Convey Information

4a. Distinguish between different formats of visuals

• Define some common visual formats, such as tables, line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, flowcharts, and organizational charts.
• When is it appropriate to use these different formats?
• Define some common representational illustrations, such as photographs, screenshots, drawings, diagrams, and schematics.

Visuals are graphical representations of information used to summarize, highlight, or expand on data, numerical or otherwise, in your text. The standard "rule of thumb" is to avoid duplicating text and graphic information: use visuals to replace or expand on the text.

If your written information lends itself to graphical depiction, use a graphic to minimize your written text. If your text is descriptive enough and provides sufficient information to the reader, you may not need to include a graphic. However, if your visual completely covers the main points of your topic, you only need to provide minimal descriptive text.

Tables

A table is a visual format comprised of rows and columns of data (words or numbers). Tables are not the most engaging visual format, but they allow readers to access your data to make quick and easy comparisons. Writers often use tables to convey numerical data.

Use a table to detail or summarize several aspects of a category, such as to compare measurements or dimensions of different products, or show trends or patterns, such as rising or falling activity. While it can be time-consuming to read a table, they do provide a lot of information.

Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs allow you to present the same data you have in a table in a more engaging and dramatic way, although with less detail and precision. Rather than using rows and columns, you can represent data in a line, bar graph, pie chart, and employ visually-engaging elements such as color, shading, or solid and dashed lines to convey data and reveal relationships between data points.

Use a chart or graph if you do not need to provide as much detailed information as in a table, such as when you only need to identify relationships among data points or portray a data trend. It is usually easier for your reader to see key relationships in the data you highlight in a chart or graph. But it is easier to pinpoint specific data points in a table.

Line Graphs

A line graph shows a line that joins several points, to present a relationship or trend among them. Notice that the line does not have to be straight, but can curve. Use this format to compare two items, such as two variables counted on the X- and Y-axis.

Bar Charts

A bar chart presents the numerical value of different categories or variables. Each category is represented by one bar (depicted by the height or length of the lines or rectangles). The bars for each different category should not touch each other.

Use this format to illustrate numerical or measurable data in a way that is easy to understand and read. But unlike the line graph, you can compare more than two sets of data in a bar chart.

Histograms

A histogram is like a bar chart, but the adjacent bars touch each other and almost only use vertical bars. You can use a histogram to illustrate continuous data, or data that has been measured on a continuous numbers scale. Histograms are useful in showing relationships between two different sets of data.

Pie Charts

A pie chart is a circular chart that is split into segments to show percentages of categories of data. It shows the relative sizes of the shares, as compared to the whole amount. They are a good method of representation to compare different parts of a group, as compared to the whole (the entire pie).

A key limitation of pie charts is that they can make your data unclear and difficult to interpret when displaying more than six categories. You should use a bar chart if you wish to present more than six categories. As you can see, the following example of a pie chart is tricky to navigate: it is difficult to differentiate and interpret the meaning for each different shade of grey.

Flowcharts

A flowchart represents a process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds and their order. They are used to analyze, design, document, or manage a process or program. Often the shape of the box in the flowchart indicates whether the reader has reached the beginning or end of a process, or should take a certain action, such as ask a question or make a decision.

Organizational Charts

Many organizations and businesses create organizational charts to show the divisions and subdivisions of their organizational structure. The placement or each group or department illustrates the hierarchy and lines of responsibility, authority, and communication among individuals and groups.

Other Types of Visuals

You can use visuals to represent information other than numerical data. If you need to depict objects, places, people, and their relationships, you can use photos and screenshots, drawings, diagrams, and schematics. These visual formats are sometimes called representational illustrations.

Screenshots or screen captures present images of your computer screen's display. They are valuable tools when explaining procedures (especially those involving computer or internet-based tasks).

Drawings are one of the most common visual formats in instructions, since they reduce the details to simple representations, allowing the reader to focus on key details. Use simple line drawings for instructions or product descriptions.

A diagram or schematic goes into much more detail about the object and is useful in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports for an expert audience. They can provide a more detailed drawing with specific measurements and dimensions.

Photographs can provide engaging visuals for non-expert audiences, especially for those comparing products. 

Maps, both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D), can represent many purposes, from simple road maps to help readers visualize complex numerical data.

Review visual formats in Table, Charts, Graphs, More Working with Charts, Graphs and Tables, and Types of Graphical Illustration in Technical Writing.

4b. Apply the best practices for integrating visuals into text

• List some basic best practices for integrating visuals into text.
• Name some specific guiding principles for different visual formats.

These are some basic principles of integrating visuals into a text.

• Avoid clutter;
• Orient the image properly;
• Be aware of scale;
• Always verify content;
• Avoid extraneous graphics (only use what is necessary and relevant);
• Explain the information the visual contains and how it will help the reader;
• Give the visual a title or caption, as appropriate; and
• Use internationally-recognized symbols and icons.

For tables:

• Write informative, understandable, and visually-distinct heading labels;
• Make rows distinct through headings or display of categories;
• Avoid wordiness – limit text in cells to a few words;
• Use color coding and symbols to facilitate quick scanning and data comparison; and
• Ensure the table is readable in the display format.

For graphs in general:

• Label axes clearly and identify units of scale or measurement;
• Label axes that do not begin at zero clearly;
• Ensure the graph does not distort or modify the trend;
• Indicate the data source used to construct the graph;
• Explain how the graph supports points discussed in the text; and
• Design for simplicity, avoid overuse of colors and typefaces.

For line graphs:

• Labels and scales should indicate the quantity, magnitude, and range of each axis;
• Key data lines should be heavier than the gridlines; and
• Multiple lines should appear in different colors.

For bar graphs:

• Bar graphs can be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal bar graphs are better for showing magnitude changes, while vertical bar graphs are better for showing trends;
• Bars should be wider than the gaps between them;
• Use different patterns to indicate differences; and
• Label bars clearly.

For charts in general:

• Make sure the chart is consistent with how the audience will view the data;
• Design the chart so it shows one primary idea or specific relationship;
• Keep the chart simple and clear; do not include too much information;
• Use clear and concise labels and titles; do not include too much text;
• Make sure the information is not distorted or misleading; and
• Make sure the chart is read easily from one-page orientation.

For pie charts:

• Sectors must add up to 100 percent;
• Use different colors or fill patterns for adjacent pie sectors; and
• Group small percentage items under a general label, such as "other".

For maps:

• To map sequential data, use gradations of one or two colors to show gradations in the data;
• Use many colors to show differences if applicable; and
• Choose colors readers can distinguish easily from one another.

For illustrations and photographs:

• Keep the visuals as simple as possible, only use color to enhance important information. Two colors is preferred;
• Clearly labeled parts;
• Maintain consistent viewing angle in a series of illustrations;
• Make sure letters and numbers are easily read without having to reorient the book or manual;
• When depicting a process, the flow should read left to right; and
• Measurements, dimensions, and proportions must be accurate.

Review best practices in Types of Graphical Illustration in Technical Writing.

4c. Express ethical and legal issues surrounding the use of visuals

• Define copyright, fair use, and the Creative Commons license.
• What copyright considerations should you keep in mind when integrating visuals?
• How can you avoid logical fallacies in your visuals?
• What are the ethical considerations of using Photoshop?

Copyright is a form of protection many countries provide to authors of original works, both published and unpublished. Copyright protection reserves certain exclusive rights to authors of a work, such as the rights of reproduction and public performance.

While authors have strict protections, the law allows certain groups, such as educators, to use and copy copyrighted material without having to obtain permission from the author, as long as you follow certain specific rules, such as fair use.

Fair use is a legal exception to copyright law that allows certain individuals (such as educators) to use copyrighted material for limited, non-commercial purposes such as for commentary, criticism, or parody. You are not required to obtain permission from the copyright owner in these cases. Judges typically consider four factors in determining whether a given use of copyrighted material is fair use that are described in the primer in this unit.

Educational use allows teachers and students at nonprofit educational institutions to use copyrighted materials in face-to-face instruction (such as reading a poem or watching a movie). In distance learning, instructors must make sure the copyrighted content is only shared in an instructional, password-protected, environment (for example, they are not sharing a movie with students for mere entertainment) and that students cannot download or distribute the materials further. Instructors should not make or distribute copies of copyrighted material to their students.

Here are things that cannot be copyrighted:

• Titles, names, short phrases, slogans, familiar symbols, a list of ingredients;
• Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices;
• Works consisting entirely of information that is common property with no original authorship (such as a calendar or tape measure).
• Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form, such as a dance or an improvisational speech that were not recorded or written down;

Common copyright violations to be aware of:

• Posting copyrighted material to your website without permission from the copyright owner, even if it is published elsewhere on the web. It is okay to provide a link to material that resides on another website.
• When students use copyrighted material for an in-class presentation or report, teachers should not publish the report on the school website without permission from the owner of the material.
• Distributing copyrighted resources via email may be a violation.
• Photocopying an article for your own use, or asking students to make copies, is usually okay, but making multiple copies and distributing them to peers or colleagues may not fall under fair use.

It can be difficult to determine whether your use is fair with certainty. To help protect yourself against ethical violations, you can ask the copyright holder for permission to use their material.

Alternatively, many copyright owners grant permission to those who want to use their materials, as long as they give proper attribution to the author, with a Creative Commons license.

Even if you are using copyrighted material in your educational or internal reports under fair use, make sure you cite your source material.

Photo Editing Tools

Be aware many editors use computer editing tools, such as Photoshop, to portray images that are not entirely accurate, truthful, or factual. Doctoring photographs, especially in a political or legal context, can be flagrantly unethical and illegal. These practices can also have serious social ramifications, such as when editors modify images in ad campaigns to make models look more lean, beautiful, or strong. These doctored photographs cause viewers to have unrealistic expectations about unattainable social ideals and trends, which may result in decreased self-esteem, and feelings of inadequacy and objectification.

Logical Fallacies

Be aware that using logical fallacies, of defects in your reasoning, in your writing, or visual aids can weaken your argument and undermine your credibility. While we typically think of logical fallacies in written arguments, think about how your visuals may contribute to fallacious reasoning.

Keep the following guidelines in mind:

• Use a strong premise, supported by your arguments and evidence;
• Your statements should be true and relevant;
• Your visuals should support your conclusion;
• Your visuals should address the most important or relevant aspects of the issue; and
• Do not make strong or sweeping claims that the evidence in your visuals cannot support.

To review, see Copyright: A Primer, The Ethics of Image Manipulation, and Logical Fallacies.

Unit 4 Vocabulary

• Bar Chart/Graph
• Chart
• Copyright
• Creative Commons licence
• Diagram
• Drawing
• Educational Use (copyright)
• Fair Use (copyright)
• Flowchart
• Graph
• Histogram
• Line graph
• Logical fallacies
• Organizational Chart
• Photoshop ethics
• Pie chart
• Representational illustration
• Screenshot
• Schematic
• Table
• Visual/Graphic

Unit 5: Process Documentation

5a. Utilize audience analysis to determine the proper accounting of a process

• How does audience analysis influence how you develop a process document?

Early in the process of writing a process document, you need to define the audience and their situation as it relates to the instructions you are writing. Typically, this means you must consider their level of familiarity with the topic, background, interests, demographics, and even cultural characteristics.

First, you should identify your primary audience:

• Experts know the theory and the product inside and out. They designed it, tested it, and know everything about it. They often have advanced degrees and operate in academic settings, or in research and development areas of the government and technology worlds. 
• Technicians build, operate, maintain, and repair the stuff experts design and theorize about. Their knowledge is also highly technical, but of a more practical nature.
• Executives make business, economic, administrative, legal, governmental, political decisions about the stuff experts and technicians work with. Executives are likely to have as little technical knowledge about the subject as nonspecialists.
• Nonspecialists have the least technical knowledge of all. Their interest may be as practical as technicians' but in a different way. They want to use the new product to accomplish their tasks; they want to understand the new power technology enough to know whether to vote for or against it in the upcoming bond election. Or, they may just be curious about a specific technical matter and want to learn about it – but for no specific, practical reason.

Then, you should analyze these other characteristics:

Background in knowledge, experience, and training in the subject. If you expect some of your readers lack a certain background, you should supply it in your document. But if they are experts, then there's probably no need to add background information.

Needs and interests. Think about what your audience expects from your process document, such as how they will use it. Also, consider what they do not want to read. Keep your document focused on what you think your audience is most interested in and what they need most.

Demographics: age, residence, area of residence, gender, political preferences. These factors do not usually play a big role for technical documents, but they could affect the language your use on the sentence level. Your narrative should be relevant.

Cultural differences. If you are writing for an international audience, be aware that formats for indicating time and dates, monetary amounts, and numerical amounts vary across the globe. Also, be aware that humor and figurative language (as in "hit a home run") may not be understood outside of your own culture.

Review Audience Analysis.

5b. Format and organize communications to document a process

• Define a heading, bulleted or numbered list, notice, figure, and table.
• Define parallel phrasing.
• What are some general principles of page design for a process document?
• Define a process document.
• Describe the elements in a process document: title, introduction, equipment and supplies, and steps.
• Define five types of steps in a process document: fixed-order, variable-order, alternate, nested, and stepless instructions.
• Name a type of process document that would be most suitable for using each of these types of instructions.

Page design refers to the type of typography and formatting professionally-designed documents use. Here are some guidelines for items in a process document:

Headings

• Headings should briefly describe the sections they introduce.
• Give headings a size and font that corresponds to their level of importance in your document.
• Use parallel phrasing (the same style of text, font, or size for similar items).
• Avoid lone headings and two consecutive headings without intervening text (stacked headings).

Lists

• Create a bulleted or numbered list to emphasize points, provide white space, and allow the reader to scan your text quickly.
• Introduce your list with a sentence or more of explanatory text (below the heading).
• Use a numbered list to put items in order; bulleted list if the order is not necessary.
• Use parallel phrasing (the same style of text, font, or size for similar items).
• Be consistent: capitalize or use lowercase for the first word of each item listed.
• Only punctuate list items with a period if they are complete sentences or are embedded dependent clauses.

Notices

• Notices are sections of text that alert or warn readers about a special point, exception, problem, or danger. They often appear in a box.
• Use a standard hierarchy of notices to make them more noticeable and appear more prominently.
• Avoid putting large amounts of text in bold, italics, or all caps.
• Explain when readers should heed the warning, what will happen if they ignore it, and how they can do to recover.
• For a numbered list, align notices to the text of the list item they apply to.

Figures

• Figures include visuals, such as charts, drawings, illustrations, photos, and schematics.
• Mention or cross-reference the figure in the text that precedes it.
• When necessary, place figure captions or titles below the figure.

Tables

• Create a table to clarify repeating pairs, triplets, or quadruplets of items.
• Mention or cross-reference the table in the text that precedes it.
• Include a table title above the table (or make it the top row), unless the content is obvious and includes few items.
• Include a heading for columns and rows.
• Left-align columns and headings that are text (unless they are one character).
• Right-align or decimal-align numerical data.
• Include the type of unit measurement used in the column or row headings (inches, millimeters, liters).
• Only use one or two fonts, and use color minimally.

The title of your process document should offer a task-oriented statement about what the document is about, such as "How to Change a Tire".

Your introduction should present the tasks or procedures the document will explain or cover (and perhaps not cover). Include background on what the audience needs to know to understand the instructions, indicate the conditions when these instructions should (or should not) be used, and alert readers to any general warnings, cautions, or dangers before proceeding. You can provide some technical background (details or theory), if you need to explain why your approach to this process is warranted or effective.

Equipment and Supplies

• Your equipment and supplies section should provide a list of items readers need to gather before starting the procedure, such as tools and supplies.
• Use a two-column list to add specifications to items, such as brand names, sizes, amounts, types, model numbers.

Steps

• The steps of your process document provides readers with a chronological list of the steps they need to follow to accomplish a task.
• Fixed-order steps must be performed in the order presented. For example, to change the oil in a car, you must drain the oil before you replace it with the new oil. Use a numbered list (usually, numbered in a vertical format).

• Variable-order steps can be performed in any order. For example, troubleshooting guides recommend areas you should check when you are trying to fix something. Use a bulleted list.
• Alternate steps present two or more ways to accomplish the same thing when various conditions could exist. Use a bulleted with "OR" inserted between alternatives.
• Nested steps break individual steps down into substeps. Indent the elements of your list further and sequence the substeps (such as with a., b., c., etc.).
• Stepless instructions cannot use a numbered vertical list because the situation may be too generalized or variable.

To review, see Common Page Design, Instructions, and Online Technical Writing Examples, Cases, and Models.

5c. Revise documents for greater clarity for the audience

• How do you revise a process document to ensure it reaches your audience most effectively?

Before you edit and proofread your process document, you may need to revise your content and organization to best reach your audience. Make sure you provide instructions that work, with explanations that help your reader build, operate, or repair something.

Information

Consider the amount of information you provide to your audience. Is it relevant to them?

Your readers need to understand your document. Have you neglected to include critical steps in your instructions, background material, or definitions of key terms? Can you omit unnecessary information that might confuse and frustrate your readers? Have you pitched information to the wrong kind of audience, such as to a group of experts, rather than technicians or novices. 

How many examples do you use to explain your steps? Examples and analogies provide a powerful tool for connecting with your audience. You can put a technical concept into a language and context that they can understand and relate to. Remember that your examples should also resonate with the technical expertise of your audience.

Organization

You might change the organization of your information to make it less confusing. For example, you may have provided too much, or too little, much background information upfront so certain readers get lost. You may need to consolidate your background information into the main text, or include it within your list of instructions, the point where readers need it most. 

Some individuals read with more confidence when they understand the "big picture", or the overarching principles or context before they get into the details. A strong introduction will help you make your case for why the reader needs to read and understand the entire document.

Format

Can you change the format of your document to make your process steps more clear? Use appropriate headings, lists, graphics, typography, margins, line length and spacing, type size, and style. For example, non-specialist readers may need to see more graphics that are easier to read, shorter lines, and larger type sizes. Use graphics to illustrate key actions and objects. Use headings to indicate your main sections and subheadings.

To review, read Audience Analysis.

5d. Revise documents for sentence-level concerns

• How should you incorporate the you-centered (reader-centered) style of writing?
• List some ways you can revise your documents at the sentence level to make your writing more engaging, clear, and easy-to-read.
• What does it mean to be a gender-savvy writer?

Once you feel you have finished your writing, print a rough draft of your work. Read it over critically and note any omissions, rough transitions, or incomplete ideas. Insert corrections into your document.

Revising your sentence style and length can make a big difference. For example, when you write instructions, using the imperative voice and "you" phrasing is vastly more understandable than the passive voice or third-person phrasing.

Personalizing your writing style and making it more relaxed and informal can make it more accessible and understandable. Put people and action in your writing; passive, person-less writing is hard to read. Similarly, use active verbs as opposed to "be" verb phrasing. All of this makes your writing more direct and immediate, so readers do not have to dig for meaning.

Using a you-centered style gives your writing an audience-centered tone by emphasizing the reader's interests and perspectives. When you stress your reader's interest or benefit, they are more likely to understand the information and act on your request. It involves using the second-person "you" and "your" rather than "we", "our", "I", or "mine". You should use this tone to be informative and helpful.

Work on your sentence clarity and economy. A writing style that is too wordy can be difficult and frustrating to read. An average of 15 to 25 words per sentence is about right; sentences over 30 words are too long. When you revise your rough drafts, put them on a diet – go through a draft line by line trying to reduce the overall word, page or line count by 20 percent. Try it as an experiment and see how you do. Removing fussy, unnecessary, detail and inflated phrasing will improve your writing. 

You can revise your sentences by doing the following.

• Replace weak "be" verbs and nouns with action-oriented verbs.
• Reconfigure noun stacks. If your sentences stack more than two nouns in a row, try to unpack them into different phrases.
• Reduce redundant phrasing: rewrite wordy set phrases, eliminate obvious qualifiers, and get rid of scattershot phrasing (which compound two or more synonyms).
• Remove the phrases "there is" and "it is" from sentences.
• Convert passive-voice sentences into the active voice.
• Revise subject-verb mismatches: make sure you have a concrete, specific noun, subject, and verb in each sentence.
• Break up long sentences that can be difficult to follow.

Our social conventions are changing in favor of gender-neutral writing. Since you do not want to offend any members of your audience, during your editing and revision practices, you should try to eliminate language that may be construed as sexist or gender-specific.

Revise gender-sensitive language as it relates to:

• Pronouns: avoid using masculine nouns and revise to "they", "she or he", alternate gender pronouns, or eliminate them altogether.
• Gendered nouns: avoid using words that end in "-man", collective expressions such as "you guys", and titles such as Mr., Miss, or Mrs. 
• Proper noun use should be consistent in references to male and female subjects. For example, refer to female subjects by only their last names, just as you would for men subjects. When you are writing about several people who have the same last name, use the full name of the person every time. Refer to female subjects with their full titles, just as you would for men. 

To review, see You-Centered Business Style, Audience Analysis, Power-Revision Techniques, Composing, and Gender-Sensitive Language.

5e. Apply the process of proofreading to polish documents to professional standards

Finally, proofread your work to correct any errors in punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

Here are some proofreading tips:

• Do not rely on your computer's spell checker, which is helpful, but not foolproof. Many spell checkers are based on a limited dictionary, and it will not catch common misspellings that form another valid word (such as "there" instead of "their", or "to" instead of "too").
• Do not rely on your computer's grammar checker. Many rely on a limited number of grammar rules and fail to explain why it deemed your sentence incorrect. Your sentence could be perfectly valid. Use a grammar checker to identify potential run-on sentences, incorrect verb tenses, or frequent use of the passive voice.
• Proofread for one type of error at a time, so you do not lose focus when trying to identify and revise too many things at once. For example, it is easier to catch grammar errors, when you are not checking for punctuation and spelling at the same time.
• Slowly read every word. Try reading your text out loud, since this allows you to hear how your words sound together. It will also force you to read what is on the page – it is easy to overlook what you had thought about writing, but did not get down.
• Separate your page into individual sentences, so you do not miss mistakes hiding in paragraphs or blocks of text.
• Circle every punctuation mark and ask yourself whether each one is correct.
• Read the sentences in your paper backwards, so you focus on your punctuation and grammar, rather than the content.

To review, see Power-Revision Techniques.

Unit 5 Vocabulary

• Alternate steps
• Executive, audience
• Expert, audience
• Figures
• Fixed-order steps
• Gender-sensitive language
• Headings
• Lists
• Nested steps
• Nonspecialists, audience
• Stepless instructions
• Tables
• Technician, audience
• Variable-order steps
• You-centered style

Unit 6: Writing Proposals

6a. Utilize audience analysis to plan, write and revise a proposal

• How can you use audience analysis to plan a proposal?
• How does the consideration of your audience influence what persuasion principles you use when you write a proposal?
• What are the most important problems to watch out for when revising a proposal?

The basic idea about your proposal's audience is this: you are asking your readers to approve, fund, or grant permission for you or your organization to conduct a project. Your audience is the person or group of people who have the authority and power to make this decision.

Your proposal should include all of the information your audience needs to decide whether they should approve your project, and perhaps hire you to do the work. Put yourself in your audience's shoes as the recipient of the proposal. Think about the sort of information you would need to feel confident about making the decision to assign the project to your group and not to another applicant.

The type of proposal you request will help you analyze your audience and draft an effective document.

There are four kinds of proposals:

1. An internal proposal is to someone within your organization, business, or government agency. Since the document is internal, you may not have to include certain sections, such as qualifications, and other background information.
2. An external proposal is a request you direct to a separate, independent organization or individual, such as an independent consultant who may present a proposal to perform a certain project or service for an organization, business, or government agency.
3. Businesses request solicited proposals when they ask an individual or group to submit a proposal or bid on a work contract or work assignment. Companies and government agencies often solicit requests for proposals (RFPs). For example, a company that needs to upgrade its computer network may write an RFP that invites outside groups to bid on the contract. The RFP lists the requirements, expectations, and timeframe for the job. The work may involve conducting research or buying and installing new equipment.
4. Unsolicited proposals are not requested. Companies or individuals that present unsolicited proposals may have to convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before they can begin to explain what it will take to fix the problem.

Depending on the needs and expectations of your audience, you can use several persuasion strategies when you make a proposal.

• Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for the exchange of value or service. When someone gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if only by saying "thank you". The giver has power and influence over the receiver, but the moment may be lost if the giver dismisses the exchange as irrelevant. In business, this principle has several applications. When you go out of your way to meet a customer's needs, you appeal to this principle of reciprocity and may increase the likelihood that your customer will make a purchase because you were especially helpful. You build a relationship based on trust and reinforce personal and brand loyalty.
• Scarcity refers to the perception of inadequate supply or limited resources. People are often attracted to items that are exclusive or unique and motivated to buy rare items they fear they will miss out on if they wait too long. As a salesperson you might convince your customers to close the sale and shift from contemplation to action by reminding them that they stand to gain by making a purchase, and could lose out if they do not.
• The principle of authority refers to the trust customers have in experts when making a purchasing decision. Customers may turn to the salesperson for advice, but an endorsement from an outside authority lends more credibility than someone who has a vested interest in making the sale. As a salesperson, you can increase your authority by showing your knowledge about the product, field, trends, and outside research. You can also build credibility by revealing what outside experts have to say about the product, service, market, or trends, and your awareness of competing viewpoints.
• The principle of commitment and consistency refers to the need to follow through on promises in a consistent way. We are more likely to act on promises that are written down and signed; our memory can be faulty and it can be difficult to recall details of an oral commitment. As a salesperson, you should create a written letter of agreement or contract to ensure each party understands the promises they have made, and the expectations they have, at the moment of purchase.
• The principle of consensus refers to our tendency to follow our peers to fit in with the group. We often look to each other when making a purchase decision: it must be great if everybody else thinks so. We are more inclined to "follow the herd" when we lack adequate information about a product. As a salesperson, you might leverage testimonials from your clients to attract other buyers and partners who need someone to convince them to buy your product. 
• The principle of liking involves a perception of safety and belonging. We are more likely to interact and communicate when we feel safe. We are often attracted to people who tell us they like us and who make us feel good about ourselves. We are also often drawn to those who look and act like us, or who we perceive ourselves to be. Unfortunately, we can make costly mistakes when we make judgments about the people we like or want to work with when we base our judgments on external characteristics, such as dress, age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. 

As you reread and revise your proposal, keep in mind that your proposal is a professional document. It should be accurate, concise, credible, and relevant. It should include references where appropriate, and be free of spelling or grammatical errors.

It should be printed on letterhead and include your contact information. Make sure documents submitted electronically, appear as you intend, regardless of screen size, such as in a .pdf format.

Specifically, watch out for the following problems:

• Use a memo format for internal proposals and a business-letter format for external proposals. 
• Address your proposal to the right, decision-making audience.
• Identify exactly what you propose to do, and when.
• Include the creation of a written report to document your progress.
• Sections should follow in a logical order. For example, sell your audience on the rationale, purpose, and need for your project, before you present time schedules and costs.
• Provide specific details in the cost section, such as the number of staff required and their hourly rates, rather than one lump sum for the entire project.
• Include direct and indirect costs and qualifications, even for internal projects, such as administrative and maintenance expenses. Imagine someone you do not know will review your proposal.
• Exclude technical or scientific jargon: write for nonspecialists since some reviewers may be unfamiliar with specialized technical language.
• Try to be as brief and succinct as possible.

To review, see Proposals, Principles of Persuasion, and Business Proposal.

6b. Format and organize a written proposal

• What are the common sections in proposals?
• How are proposals typically formatted?

Most grants and business proposal documents have the following sections. Remember that it is essentially a sales or promotional document. When organizing a proposal, take the following steps:

1. Introduce the proposal, its purpose, and contents.
2. Present the background to the problem and the need to find a solution. Get your reader concerned about the problem and excited about the opportunity to fix it.
3. Explain what your project will do to correct the problem and how you will help your funder take advantage of the opportunity that exists.
4. Explain the benefits and advantages that will result from a decision to approve the project.
5. Explain exactly how the completed project will look. How will it work? What will result?
6. Detail your method, theory, and approach.
7. Provide a schedule, major milestones, and checkpoints.
8. List your qualifications, such as with a mini-resume of your background.
9. Outline the costs of the project and the resources you will need to accomplish your goals.
10. Conclude with a pointed review of the benefits that will result from the project. Encourage your audience to contact you with any questions, and to accept your proposal.

The introduction should indicate your document is a proposal, explain exactly what you are proposing, and provide a brief overview of its contents. Be sure to refer to any previous contact you have had with the proposal recipient or your information source about the project. It may help to include a brief motivational statement to encourage the recipient to read on, consider funding the project, and contract you to do the work. 

The background section describes why the project is needed: What is the problem? What opportunity exists to improve things? What is the basic situation? This section may be short if your audience knows the problem well, but your words will demonstrate your perspective on the problem. If the proposal is unsolicited, this section is a necessary component: you need to convince your audience that a problem exists and that they need your help to take advantage of an opportunity to fix it.

Most proposals list the advantages and benefits of supporting your proposal. What arguments can you summon that point to a need to support your project and how likely is it to succeed? This section is especially important for an unsolicited proposal; you must "sell" your audience on the need to support your project.

Describe the finished product of your proposal. Outline the written document you will write if your proposal is chosen, the audience and purpose, and the length, graphics, and binding for the final report. Additional work may include conducting training seminars, creating and distributing promotional materials, or providing an ongoing service.

Explain how you will accomplish your proposed work. This persuasive element demonstrates you have a sound, thoughtful, and comprehensive approach. It also provides additional background, as needed. Note that your background section focused on the problem and need. This section provides technical details about your procedures, methodology, and technology you plan to use. It should help build confidence among your readers that you have expertise in this area.

Detail the projected completion date, key project milestones, and the dates when you will deliver progress reports. If you cannot cite specific dates, estimate the amount of time needed for each phase of the project.

Summarize your qualifications for completing the proposed work (as an individual or organization). Your readers will use this targeted mini-resume to decide whether you are suited for the project. List your work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows familiarity with the project.

Detail internal and external project costs. You may need to list your hourly rate, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, administrative costs, and maintenance if needed, to calculate the total cost of the complete project.

The final paragraph or section should refocus your reader's attention to the positive aspects of your work (you have just shown them the costs). Encourage them to contact you to ask questions and clarify any details. Remind them of the benefits you bring. You and your organization are the right choices for the project.

As you finalize your proposal, consider your formatting and packaging options: use a memo format for internal proposals and a business-letter format for external proposals.

Internal proposals should include a cover letter or memo, attached to your separate proposal. The cover letter or memo briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents. It should resemble your introduction for the proposal itself.

Format external proposals as a consolidated business-letter or memo proposal. Include headings and other special formatting elements, as in a typical business report. 

To review, see Proposals.

Unit 6 Vocabulary

• Authority (persuasion technique)
• Background (proposal section)
• Benefits (proposal section)
• Commitment and Consistency (persuasion technique)
• Consensus (persuasion technique)
• External proposal
• Internal proposal
• Liking (persuasion technique)
• Reciprocity (persuasion technique)
• Scarcity (persuasion technique)
• Solicited proposal
• Unsolicited proposal

Unit 7: Communicating on the Internet

7a. Distinguish between the variety of online publishing opportunities

• Describe how the Internet evolved to offer authors a new writing environment.
• Define an online blog, discussion forum, and wiki. 
• How do individuals, businesses, professors, and non-profit organizations use these social media communications tools to interact, and share information and commentary?
• Define net neutrality.

The Internet has created a new decentralized and free writing environment where anyone with a personal computer, dial-up modem, phone line, and account with an Internet service provider (ISP) can communicate across great distances. Open protocols have allowed creators to control their material without a central command structure. Data is easy to back up and difficult to destroy. Web browsers now allow Internet users to access and create their own web pages.

Blogs provide an online personal and professional writing space where authors can create, share and converse with other bloggers, such as to critique arguments, products, services. Companies, educators, and nonprofit organizations use blogs to communicate with potential clients, students, and members.

For example, businesses use this online communication platform to inform their customers about new products and services, professors use blogs to interact with and discuss academic topics with their students, while advocacy organizations use blogs to inform the public about their mission, goals, and publicize their calls to action.

Online discussion forums create an online community that professors, students, and individuals with a common interest can interact and share ideas. For example, communities can easily share and respond to topics of interest on news websites or sites such as Reddit.

Wikis, such as Wikipedia, provide crowdsourced information sites where any individual in a group who has editing privileges, can edit a central online document.

Businesses use many social media marketing tools, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn to connect with customers, promote their products and services, obtain feedback, and build a community that will generate business.

Net neutrality is the concept that the Internet should remain neutral. Many argue that Internet service providers should not be allowed to create paywalls that discriminate against website creators who cannot afford to pay hefty fees to use a provider's network to transmit content to their users and the public. ISPs should also not be allowed to cause the websites of their competitors to load more slowly than their own. 

Nonprofit organizations, such as schools, colleges, and advocacy organizations, are especially concerned about maintaining net neutrality since most cannot afford to pay high fees that would limit their ability to transmit the high-bandwidth materials students need, and potentially shut them out of the Internet, which has thrived on the free and robust transfer of information. 

To review, see The Evolution of the Internet, New Media Writing Introduction, Quickstart Guide to Social Media for Business, Don't Be a Social Media Marketing Skeptic, Blogging in the Composition Classroom, and Social Media and Web 2.0.

7b. Describe how different online writing contexts impact audience, document design, and creation

• Define different characteristics of online writing contexts and how they impact audience, document design, and the creation of documents.
• What does it mean for a message to go viral as it relates to audience, design, and creation?

Blogs provide an online writing space where authors can have a productive conversation with readers from across the globe. Take a look at some online blogs to see how bloggers create, present, critique, and destroy other arguments. They can also make arguments more complicated, as they offer nuanced perspectives, and receive comments from their readers.

As with any good writer, effective bloggers need to think about their audience. Try to initiate a conversation by inviting readers to question your (and their own) ideas and post comments. Choose an engaging discussion topic, and create a blog that is visually appealing and easy to read. Popular blogs tend to have a defined rhetorical stance: the theme and writing style of their posts are consistent and distinctive.

Consider these rhetorical questions to help determine the best online writing context for your social media campaign:

• Which social media platform is best? Research and explore different platforms to learn whether the communication tools they use are appropriate for your message. Research where your customers are reading, scrolling, or watching online. Create an account so you can test your message and diversify from there to reach new audiences.
• How do you find and engage the right people? Use search tools to identify and follow the people who are influencers in your industry. For example, if you are in the restaurant business, identify food bloggers in your region, follow them, and learn how you can appropriately build and grow your own list of followers and expand your influence. Connect your loyal email subscriber list with your social media activity. Find out where they are and let them know about your social media presence.
• What is the best way to engage with followers? Generating interest among your followers may take time. As we explored in Unit 1, once you understand your audience you can provide interesting, engaging, and relevant content. Some advise you to engage your audience with webchats, contests, and surveys. Others warn against employing heavy interaction tactics until your new social media efforts have had time to grow. 

Messages "go viral" when you have succeeded in impacting your audience and you have an effective document design. Viral messages are words, sounds, or images that compel the audience to pass them along to their friends and colleagues. The messages use sparks and triggers to grab the audience's attention, and prompt them to act or mobilize their community.

Does your message have the following three attributes to go viral?

1. Does it have an emotional appeal that people will feel compelled to share?
2. Does it have a spark or trigger (does it challenge, provide novelty, or incorporate humor) to motivate interest?
3. Is it relevant to the audience? It must be immediately accessible, salient, and important.

To review, read Blogging in the Composition Classroom.

7c. Apply best practices of technical writing to assessing new communications contexts

• What are the technical writing best practices that can help assess new communication contexts?

Use the same best practice technique and principles regarding audience analysis which we explored in Unit 1 to help create an appropriate message for your social media audience. However, social media offers a growing body of searchable personal information to augment the broad organizational tasks, including market research, recruitment, and customer service. Businesses use data they obtain from social media sites, such as Facebook, Google, and Twitter, to research and reach their target audiences. 

• Find your target market by searching for keywords and hashtags that relate to your business, and see what users say about them. You may find influencers among them.
• Engage your target market by investing some time to research and get to know your audience – what they seek and what they like – and start to build relationships with them.

Another best practice is to create brief, focused messages to engage your audience. For example, the more you Tweet, the more visible you are. Your tone should also be conversational, engaging, and show interest. 

To review, see Six Tips for Getting the Most out of Your Small Business Tweets.

7d. Describe the ethical and safety issues regarding communication and the Internet

• What are the ethical and safety issues regarding communication and the Internet?
• Define netiquette. Explain how digital ethics help create a social media ethos.
• What are some ethical issues related to social media and the workplace?

New online communication tools and social media allow small businesses and rural communities to connect with global suppliers, vendors, and other physically-remote partners in the global marketplace as never before. However, these communication pathways can also open opportunities to transfer fraudulent, illicit, and unwanted information.

The lack of authorial attribution in many online forums can make it difficult to research whether the information shared is credible and accurate. It is important to gauge credibility, authenticity, and possible bias in a source, such as to determine whether the author has a conflict of interest that might call the information they share and post into question.

Netiquette refers to following practices that employ social and ethical etiquette on the Internet. As with any ethical or moral code of conduct or issue, users often disagree about what constitutes netiquette and may raise questions about the best format for textual and visual communications.

• What language and tone are appropriate online?
• What guidelines govern the online community?
• How should audiences use, remix, and alter online source material? What is the fairest way to reference and cite these sources?
• How should users portray themselves online, whether through avatars, gaming, and other social media? How should we develop and maintain this online ethos?
• How should employers and employees approach the blurred line between private and public? What constitutes a public forum?

Digital ethics also refers to how we construct and present ourselves in social media, which affects how our audience receives our communications and intentions. For example, our LinkedIn and Facebook profile pages allow us to build a digital character or representation – our Aristotelian ethos. Our choices reflect our goals, as a student and as a professional.

Social media tools such as Twitter and Facebook allow organizations to speak directly to, and solicit responses from, the public quickly and affordably. Many legal issues around social media ownership and usage in a business setting remain undefined.

For example, businesses and organizations need to define who owns the social media assets a staff member created, such as Facebook walls, Twitter handles, and contact lists when an employee leaves the company.

Hiring managers also risk violating anti-discrimination laws when they learn private and personal information when they turn to social media to recruit or screen potential employees, such as a job candidate's race, gender, or sexual orientation. Similarly, are employees free to use colorful language, make unseemly remarks, or critique their employer on their social media sites? In many instances, the lines that separate the public and private space have blurred.

To review, see Digital Ethics and Social Media in the Workplace: Research Roundup.

Unit 7 Vocabulary

• Blogging
• Digital Ethics
• Net Neutrality
• Netiquette
• Verifiability
• Viral