X86 Instructions and ARM Architecture

Control Flow Instructions

Almost all programming languages have the ability to change the order in which statements are evaluated, and assembly is no exception. The instruction pointer (EIP) register contains the address of the next instruction to be executed. To change the flow of control, the programmer must be able to modify the value of EIP. This is where control flow functions come in.

mov eip, label   ; wrong
jmp label        ; right

Performs a bit-wise logical and on arg0 and arg1 the result of which we will refer to as commonBits and sets the ZF(zero), SF(sign) and PF (parity) flags based on commonBits. CommonBits is then discarded.

Operands

arg0

• Register
• Immediate

arg1

• AL/AX/EAX (only if arg0 is an immediate value)
• Register
• Memory

Modified flags

• SF ≔ MostSignificantBit(commonBits)
• ZF ≔ (commonBits = 0), so a set ZF means, arg0 and arg1 do not have any set bits in common
• PF ≔ BitWiseXorNor(commonBits[Max-1:0]), so PF is set if and only if commonBits[Max-1:0] has an even number of 1 bits
• CF ≔ 0
• OF ≔ 0
• AF is undefined

Application

• passing the same register twice: test rax, rax
  • SF becomes the sign of rax, which is a simple test for non-negativity
  • ZF is set if rax is zero
  • PF is set if rax has an even number of set bits

Performs a comparison operation between minuend and subtrahend. The comparison is performed by a (signed) subtraction of subtrahend from minuend, the results of which can be called difference. Difference is then discarded. If subtrahend is an immediate value it will be sign extended to the length of minuend. The EFLAGS register is set in the same manner as a sub instruction.

Note that the GAS/AT&T syntax can be rather confusing, as for example cmp $0, %rax followed by jl branch will branch if %rax < 0 (and not the opposite as might be expected from the order of the operands).

Operands

minuend

• AL/AX/EAX (only if subtrahend is immediate)
• Register
• Memory

subtrahend

• Register
• Immediate
• Memory

Modified flags

• SF ≔ MostSignificantBit(difference), so an unset SF means the difference is non-negative (minuend ≥ subtrahend [NB: signed comparison])
• ZF ≔ (difference = 0)
• PF ≔ BitWiseXorNor(difference[Max-1:0])
• CF, OF and AF

Jump Instructions

The jump instructions allow the programmer to (indirectly) set the value of the EIP register. The location passed as the argument is usually a label. The first instruction executed after the jump is the instruction immediately following the label. All of the jump instructions, with the exception of jmp, are conditional jumps, meaning that program flow is diverted only if a condition is true. These instructions are often used after a comparison instruction (see above), but since many other instructions set flags, this order is not required.

See chapter “X86 architecture”, § “EFLAGS register” for more information about the flags and their meaning.

Unconditional Jumps

Loads EIP with the specified address (i.e. the next instruction executed will be the one specified by jmp).

Jump if Equal

ZF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if operands of previous cmp instruction are equal. For example:

movecx,$5
movedx,$5
cmpecx,edx
jeequal
; if it did not jump to the label equal,
; then this means ecx and edx are not equal.
equal:
; if it jumped here, then this means ecx and edx are equal

Jump if Not Equal

ZF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if operands of previous cmp instruction are not equal.

Jump if Greater

SF = OF and ZF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the previous cmp instruction is greater than the second (performs signed comparison).

Jump if Greater or Equal

SF = OF or ZF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the of previous cmp instruction is greater than or equal to the subtrahend (performs signed comparison).

Jump if Above (unsigned comparison)

CF = 0 and ZF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the previous cmp instruction is greater than the subtrahend. ja is the same as jg, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

That means, the following piece of code always jumps (unless rbx is -1, too), because negative one is represented as all bits set in the two's complement.

movrax,-1//rax:=-1
cmprax,rbx
jaloc

Interpreting all bits set (without treating any bit as the sign) has the value 2ⁿ-1 (where n is the length of the register). That is the largest unsigned value a register can hold.

Jump if Above or Equal (unsigned comparison)

CF = 0 or ZF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of previous cmp instruction is greater than or equal to the subtrahend. jae is the same as jge, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

Jump if Lesser

The criterion required for a jl is that SF ≠ OF. It loads EIP with the specified address, if the criterion is met. So either SF or OF can be set, but not both in order to satisfy this criterion. If we take the sub (which is basically what a cmp does) instruction as an example, we have:

minuend - subtrahend

With respect to sub and cmp there are several cases that fulfill this criterion:

1. minuend < subtrahend and the operation does not have overflow
2. minuend > subtrahend and the operation has an overflow

In the first case SF will be set but not OF and in second case OF will be set but not SF since the overflow will reset the most significant bit to zero and thus preventing SF being set. The SF ≠ OF criterion avoids the cases where:

1. minuend > subtrahend and the operation does not have overflow
2. minuend < subtrahend and the operation has an overflow
3. minuend = subtrahend

In the first case neither SF nor OF are set, in the second case OF will be set and SF will be set since the overflow will reset the most significant bit to one and in the last case neither SF nor OF will be set.

Jump if Less or Equal

SF ≠ OF or ZF = 1.

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of previous cmp instruction is lesser than or equal to the subtrahend. See the jl section for a more detailed description of the criteria.

Jump if Below (unsigned comparison)

CF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if first operand of previous CMP instruction is lesser than the second. jb is the same as jl, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

movrax,0; rax ≔ 0
cmprax,rbx; rax ≟ rbx
jbloc; always jumps, unless rbx is also 0

Jump if Below or Equal (unsigned comparison)

CF = 1 or ZF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if minuend of previous cmp instruction is lesser than or equal to the subtrahend. jbe is the same as jle, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

Jump if Overflow

OF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the overflow bit is set on a previous arithmetic expression.

Jump if Not Overflow

OF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the overflow bit is not set on a previous arithmetic expression.

Jump if Zero

ZF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the zero bit is set from a previous arithmetic expression. jz is identical to je.

Jump if Not Zero

ZF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the zero bit is not set from a previous arithmetic expression. jnz is identical to jne.

Jump if Signed

SF = 1

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the sign bit is set from a previous arithmetic expression.

Jump if Not Signed

SF = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the sign bit is not set from a previous arithmetic expression.

Jump if counter register is zero

CX = 0

ECX = 0

RCX = 0

Loads EIP with the specified address, if the counter register is zero.

Function Calls

Pushes the address of the instruction that follows the call call, i.e. usually the next line in your source code, onto the top of the stack, and then jumps to the specified location. This is used mostly for subroutines.

Loads the next value on the stack into EIP, and then pops the specified number of bytes off the stack. If val is not supplied, the instruction will not pop any values off the stack after returning.

Loop Instructions

The loop instruction decrements ECX and jumps to the address specified by arg unless decrementing ECX caused its value to become zero. For example:

movecx,5; ecx ≔ 5
head:
; the code here would be executed 5 times
loophead

loop does not set any flags.

These loop instructions decrement ECX and jump to the address specified by arg if their condition is satisfied (that is, a specific flag is set), unless decrementing ECX caused its value to become zero.

• loope loop if equal
• loopne loop if not equal
• loopnz loop if not zero
• loopz loop if zero

That way, only testing for a non-zero ECX can be combined with testing ZF. Other flags can not be tested for, say there is no loopnc “loop while ECX ≠ 0 and CF unset”.

Enter and Leave

enter creates a stack frame with the specified amount of space allocated on the stack.

leave destroys the current stack frame, and restores the previous frame. Using Intel syntax this is equivalent to:

movesp,ebp; esp ≔ ebp
popebp

This will set EBP and ESP to their respective value before the function prologue began therefore reversing any modification to the stack that took place during the prologue.

Other Control Instructions

Halts the processor. Execution will be resumed after processing next hardware interrupt, unless IF is cleared.

No operation. This instruction doesn't do anything, but wastes (an) instruction cycle(s) in the processor.

This instruction is often represented as an xchg operation with the operands EAX and EAX (an operation without side-effects), because there is no designated opcode for doing nothing. This just as a passing remark, so that you do not get confused with disassembled code.

Asserts #LOCK prefix on next instruction.

Waits for the FPU to finish its last calculation.