Corporate Governance

Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled.

TERMS

• Auditing

  The general definition of an audit is an evaluation of a person, organization, system, process, enterprise, project, or product. The term most commonly refers to audits in accounting, but similar concepts also exist in project management, quality management, water management, and energy conservation.

• stakeholders

  A corporate stakeholder is that which can affect or be affected by the actions of the business as a whole.

Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. It involves regulatory and market mechanisms; the roles and relationships between a company's management, its board, its shareholders, and other stakeholders; and the goals for which the corporation is governed. In contemporary business corporations, the main external stakeholder groups are shareholders, debtholders, trade creditors, suppliers, customers, and communities affected by the corporation's activities. Internal stakeholders are the board of directors, executives, and other employees.

Much of the contemporary interest in corporate governance is concerned with mitigation of the conflicts of interests between stakeholders. Ways of mitigating or preventing these conflicts of interests include the processes, customs, policies, laws, and institutions which have impact on the way a company is controlled. An important theme of corporate governance is the nature and extent of accountability of people in the business.

A related but separate thread of discussion focuses on the impact of a corporate governance system on economic efficiency, with a strong emphasis on shareholders' welfare. In large firms where there is a separation of ownership and management and no controlling shareholder, the principal–agent issue arises between upper-management (the "agent") which may have very different interests, and by definition considerably more information, than shareholders (the "principals"). Rather than overseeing management on behalf of shareholders, the board of directors may become insulated from shareholders and beholden to management. This aspect is particularly present in contemporary public debates and developments in regulatory policy.

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in three documents released since 1990: The Cadbury Report, the Principles of Corporate Governance, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. The Cadbury and OECD reports present general principals around which businesses are expected to operate to assure proper governance. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, informally referred to as Sarbox or Sox, is an attempt by the federal government in the United States to legislate several of the principles recommended in the Cadbury and OECD reports.

Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, such as employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities, customers, and policy makers.

The board needs sufficient relevant skills and understanding to review and challenge management performance. It also needs adequate size and appropriate levels of independence and commitment.

Integrity should be a fundamental requirement in choosing corporate officers and board members. Organizations should develop a code of conduct for their directors and executives that promotes ethical and responsible decision making.

Organizations should clarify and make publicly known the roles and responsibilities of board and management to provide stakeholders with a level of accountability. They should also implement procedures to independently verify and safeguard the integrity of the company's financial reporting. Disclosure of material matters concerning the organization should be timely and balanced to ensure that all investors have access to clear, factual information.

Corporate governance principles and codes have been developed in different countries and issued from stock exchanges, corporations, institutional investors, or associations (institutes) of directors and managers with the support of governments and international organizations. As a rule, compliance with these governance recommendations is not mandated by law, although the codes linked to stock exchange listing requirements may have a coercive effect.

One of the most influential guidelines has been the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance - published in 1999 and revised in 2004. The OECD guidelines are often referenced by countries developing local codes or guidelines. Building on the work of the OECD, other international organizations, private sector associations, and more than 20 national corporate governance codes formed the United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR) to produce their Guidance on Good Practices in Corporate Governance Disclosure. This internationally agreed benchmark consists of more than fifty distinct disclosure items across five broad categories:

1. Auditing
2. Board and management structure and process
3. Corporate responsibility and compliance
4. Financial transparency and information disclosure
5. Ownership structure and exercise of control rights

Most codes are largely voluntary. An issue raised in the U.S. since the 2005 Disney decision is the degree to which companies manage their governance responsibilities. In other words, do they merely try to supersede the legal threshold? Or should they create governance guidelines that ascend to the level of best practice?

The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 is a United States federal law that set new or enhanced standards for all U.S. public company boards, management, and public accounting firms. The act is also known as the "Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act" (in the Senate) and "Corporate and Auditing Accountability and Responsibility Act" (in the House). It's more commonly called Sarbanes–Oxley, Sarbox or SOX; it is named after sponsors U.S. Senator Paul Sarbanes (D-MD) and U.S. Representative Michael G. Oxley (R-OH). As a result of SOX, top management must now individually certify the accuracy of financial information. In addition, penalties for fraudulent financial activity are much more severe. Also, SOX increased the oversight role of boards of directors while also increasing the independence of outside auditors who review the accuracy of corporate financial statements.

The bill was enacted as a reaction to major corporate and accounting scandals affecting Enron, Tyco International, and others. These scandals, which cost investors billions of dollars, shook public confidence in the nation's securities markets.

Debate continues over the perceived benefits and costs of SOX. Opponents of the bill claim it has reduced America's international competitive edge against foreign financial service providers, saying it introduced an overly complex regulatory environment into U.S. financial markets. Proponents of the measure say that SOX has improved the confidence of fund managers and other investors with regard to the veracity of corporate financial statements.

Title I consists of nine sections and establishes the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, providing independent oversight of public accounting firms. It also creates a central oversight board tasked with registering auditors, defining the specific processes for compliance audits, inspecting conduct and quality control, and enforcing compliance.

Auditor Independence

Corporate Responsibility

Commission Resources and Authority

Studies and Reports

Corporate Tax Returns

Corporate Fraud Accountability