PSYCH101 Study Guide

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Study Guide Structure

In this study guide, the sections in each unit (1a., 1b., etc.) are the learning outcomes of that unit. 

Beneath each learning outcome are:

• questions for you to answer independently;
• a brief summary of the learning outcome topic; and
• and resources related to the learning outcome. 

At the end of each unit, there is also a list of suggested vocabulary words.

 

How to Use this Study Guide

1. Review the entire course by reading the learning outcome summaries and suggested resources.
2. Test your understanding of the course information by answering questions related to each unit learning outcome and defining and memorizing the vocabulary words at the end of each unit.

By clicking on the gear button on the top right of the screen, you can print the study guide. Then you can make notes, highlight, and underline as you work.

Through reviewing and completing the study guide, you should gain a deeper understanding of each learning outcome in the course and be better prepared for the final exam!

Unit 1: The History and Methods of Psychology

1a. Define psychology

• What is psychology?
• How do psychologists study their topics?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study observable behavior and measurable mental processes using the empirical method of discovery.
 
To review, see Principles of Psychology and Psychology and Other Sciences.

1b. Identify the role of prominent researchers and theorists in the development of the field of psychology

• What is the importance of Wilhelm Wundt and William James in the development of psychology?
• What were Sigmund Freud's influences on psychology?
• How did research by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner differ from previous work in psychology? What influences does behaviorism have to this day?

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. We trace the origin of the field back to Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), the German physiologist, philosopher, and professor, and his laboratory in Germany. William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist.
 
The discipline evolved from Wundt's focus on introspection (understanding internal processes to stimuli) to Sigmund Freud's (1856–1939), Erik Erikson's (1902–1994), Jean Piaget's (1896–1980) exploration of broader concepts like child development, to Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), Carl Roger's (1902–1987) study of human behavior and motivation, and Noam Chomsky's (1928– ) exploration of language acquisition.
 
In Europe, Sigmund Freud developed his theory of psychosexual development, which highlighted the important role of childhood experiences in human personality development. His theory remains influential to this day, although many disagree with his view that childhood experiences and behaviors determine a person's personality during adulthood.
 
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson (1878–1958), and B.F. Skinner developed behaviorism in the United States. It became a major emphasis in psychology and contributed to our understanding of why we repeat certain behaviors. Many use principles of behaviorism such as reinforcement and shaping in educational and clinical settings.
 
To review, read History of Psychology and watch History of Psychology.

1c. Summarize the leading schools of thought in the history of psychology

• What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism?
• What are the basic tenets of Gestalt psychology?
• Why is behaviorism so influential in psychology's history?
• What are the basic tenets of humanism?

William Wundt (1832–1920), the founder of the field of psychology, was a structuralist; he assumed we can only understand human behavior if we break it into parts. He used his method of introspection to study the experience of perception. William James, the first American psychologist, was a functionalist; he emphasized the adaptive responses of humans to the environment.
 
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed a theory of psychosexual development and was the founder of psychoanalysis. He believed early childhood experiences significantly impact future personality development. Subsequently, patients undergoing psychoanalytic therapy were asked to think about their childhood experiences. Another major focus is uncovering unconscious and subconscious memories and experiences.
 
Humanism emerged in response to the deterministic schools of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who focused on the innate potential for good within humans, influenced the development of this school of thought.
 
Gestalt psychology, founded by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), was popular in Europe. Gestalt psychologists focus on human perception and believe we tend to perceive the sum of all parts rather than individual differences.
 
American psychologists focused on behaviorism, the study of the mechanisms that shape and reinforce behavior. Ivan Pavlov used dogs to study behaviorism and introduced the concept of classical conditioning, a learning process of two (or more) associated stimuli.
 
John B. Watson (1878–1958) and B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) explored operant conditioning (learning through punishments and rewards) with a focus on how reinforcements and punishments influence human and animal behavior. Behaviorism was the dominant school of psychology during the 1950s and 1960s.
 
To review, see History of Psychology, Contemporary Psychology, Careers in Psychology, and History of Psychology.

1d. Describe the scientific method, research methods in psychology, and the principles of scientific experiment planning and design

• What is the scientific method? What is its role in psychology?
• What research methods are popular in the field of psychology?
• What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research?

Social science researchers use the scientific method to explore phenomena in a systematic, objective way. The steps of the scientific method (hypothesis, research, observation, theory) influence and build on one another in a continuous cycle. Using the scientific method ensures research is performed systematically and can be replicated by others.
 
Psychology incorporates several popular research methods where researchers systematically observe phenomena, such as naturalistic observation. This method is particularly popular in animal research and in instances when individuals do not want to disclose their motivations. Psychologists ask participants to fill out forms to rate their experiences in research surveys. They conduct interviews to gather in-depth information from participants about particular experiences.
 
Most psychological research is cross-sectional, which means researchers study phenomena at one point in time. This is primarily due to the large costs associated with longitudinal research that usually spans a long period. Although longitudinal research is more expensive and presents more research difficulties, it allows researchers to draw firmer conclusions.
 
To review, see Why Research Is Important and Approaches to Research.

1e. Explain data analysis techniques commonly used in psychology research

• What is a correlation? Why does a correlation not imply causation?
• What are the components of an experimental research design?

A correlation is a statistic that measures the degree of association between two variables. A correlation tells researchers if and how two variables are related. Correlation does NOT imply one variable causes another.
 
For example, a researcher who discovers a positive correlation between happiness and exercise cannot conclude we derive happiness from exercise. Other variables we are not measuring may also have an impact. For example, diet may affect happiness or the willingness to exercise – there is really no relationship between happiness and exercise.
 
Even if a causal relationship exists between the variables, we cannot tell which is the cause and which is the effect. Perhaps being happy makes people exercise more, or exercise makes people happier. Cross-sectional research uncovers correlations, while longitudinal research can provide more insight into causation.
 
Psychologists who use experimental research design use separate control and experimental groups – this means they randomly assign participants to each group. Psychologists manipulate the independent variable, so one group is exposed to it, but the other is not.
 
For example, in pharmaceutical research, the experimental group may receive a new drug while the control group receives a placebo. Researchers then measure the dependent variable (the outcome) to explore the effect the independent variable posed (or did not).
 
 

Unit 1 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• behaviorism
• classical conditioning
• correlation
• cross-sectional research
• empirical method
• experimental research design
• functionalism
• Gestalt psychology
• humanism
• introspection
• operant conditioning
• psychoanalysis
• scientific method
• structuralism
• theory of psychosexual development
• Wilhelm Wundt
• William James

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

2a. Discuss the role of genetics in human psychology and gene-environment interactions

• What is the gene-environment interaction?
• What's the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Although psychology is a social science defined as the study of the mind, the fields of genetics and biology are also important. We draw on these fields to understand the biological causes of behaviors and understand the significance of brain functions and development.
 
The nature-nurture debate is significant in this line of inquiry. Do our genes (nature) or our contexts and experiences (nurture) cause us to behave the way we do? Consequently, scientists differentiate between genotypes (our genetic makeup) and phenotypes (inherited physical traits and characteristics).
 
Genes do not exist in isolation – nature alone does not predict human behavior. Our genes provide the general structure (possible range for behaviors) in which we operate, but our inherited traits and our surroundings (nurture/environment) also contribute to our behaviors.
 
Our genes (nature) determine the possible range of a certain behavior (for example, artistic development), while our environment (nurture) determines its potential. For example, when a child has an innate talent for music (singing of playing an instrument) (genetic) and is raised in a home where parents provide ample opportunities and resources to foster a love for music, the child is more likely to reach their full potential of musical talent compared to a child who is not reared in such a fostering environment.
 
To review, see Human Genetics, Twin and Adoption Studies, and Risk Factors for Developing Schizophrenia.
 

2b. Explain the structure and function of neurons, neural communication, the brain, the spinal cord, the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the physiological and behavioral effects of neurotransmitters and psychoactive drugs

• What are the basic parts of a nerve cell?
• How do neurons communicate with each other?
• How do the central and peripheral nervous systems differ?
• What are neurotransmitters?
• What is the effect of psychoactive drugs on neurotransmitters?

A nerve cell, or neuron, consists of a cell body, membrane, an axon covered in a myelin sheath, dendrites, and terminal buttons. Neurons rely on chemical messengers called neurotransmitters to communicate with each other; these neurotransmitters are stored in a neuron's terminal button. When a neuron is activated, an action potential fires or activates the neuron and releases the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap between neurons. When the receiving dendrites receive the signal, the receptors open and allow sodium ions (Na+) to move into the receiving cell. This causes the internal state of the receiving neuron to become positive. If this charge is strong enough to meet the threshold of excitation for the receiving neuron, it will become activated and start firing.
 
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of the nerve cells throughout one's body. Essentially, the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
 
There are a number of neurotransmitters, which each have different effects on behaviors. For example, dopamine and serotonin are associated with mood and sleep, while acetylcholine and glutamate are linked to memory. The release or inhibition of neurotransmitter release is associated with specific behaviors, so if a neuron fires and releases acetylcholine, a person will have enhanced memory and cognition. However, when neurons are inhibited from releasing this neurotransmitter, the person will experience decreased memory.
 
Psychoactive drugs can impact neurotransmitters, such as by forcing or inhibiting the release of a neurotransmitter to regulate behavior. These are called agonist and antagonist responses, respectively. For example, patients experiencing schizophrenia symptoms have been found to have an overactive dopamine presence. Medications used to treat these patients consist primarily of dopamine antagonists to regulate this imbalance.
 
To review the structures and functions of neurons, see Cells of the Nervous System, Introduction to Neurons, Action Potentials, Neuron Action Potential, Neurotransmitters and Their Functions, Neurotransmitters: Type, Structure, and Function, Parts of the Nervous System, and The Nervous System.
 

2c. Describe how researchers study and examine the brain and its functions, the behavioral effects of brain injuries, and the significance of split-brain operations

• How can radiation and magnetic fields be used to study the brain?
• What is a stroke, and how can it affect brain functioning?
• What is the role of split-brain operations, and what are some consequences?

If brain functioning is impaired by an accident (damage to the head during a car accident) or a stroke, researchers can draw upon brain imaging techniques to explore further. Strokes occur when brain cells are deprived of oxygen and thus cannot function properly anymore.
 
Brain imaging techniques among patients with brain injuries can inform the field of neuropsychology greatly as we are still learning about specific brain structures and functions.

There are two methods involving radiation that allow researchers to study and take pictures of human brains. These techniques are particularly useful since they are pain-free and not very invasive. They can provide ample evidence of brain functioning and damage following a stroke or an accident, for example. Computerized tomography (CT) is an x-ray of the brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields to image the brain.
 
Fibers connect the two hemispheres of our brain. Some patients with severe epilepsy undergo split-brain surgery to separate these fibers to disconnect the hemispheres to stop the spread of seizures. This surgery can tame epilepsy, but patients display several side effects. For example, they may be able to name an object but not be able to grasp it with their hand.
 
To review, see The Brain and Spinal Cord, Phantom Limb Pain, and The Brain.
 

2d. Describe the endocrine system and the role of hormones in regulating body functions

• What are the major glands in the endocrine system?
• How do hormones regulate body functions?

The endocrine system includes several glands that rely on chemical substances called hormones to communicate with each other and regulate behaviors such as metabolism, growth, sexual functions, sleep, reproduction, and mood.
 
The pituitary gland is the master gland of the endocrine system; it regulates growth and pain hormones, among others. The thyroid gland regulates metabolism and appetite, while the pancreas secretes hormones that regulate sugar. Adrenal glands regulate stress hormones, and gonads secrete sexual hormones.
 
Unlike neurotransmitters, hormones travel through the body in the bloodstream. Hormones are often slow to act but tend to last longer than neurotransmitters. When hormones travel throughout the bloodstream, they must attach to their intended receptor cells to relay a message. When a hormone binds to the correct cell, a biological process activates the receiving cell and corresponding gland. The major glands release hormones to regulate several functions, such as growth, appetite, sex, reproduction, and stress.
 
To review, see The Endocrine System, More on the Endocrine System, and The Brain.
 

2e. Describe the stages of sleep (REM and NREM), their importance in proper psychological function, common sleep problems and disorders, and hypnosis

• What are the stages of sleep? Differentiate between REM and NREM
• Describe common sleep problems and disorders

Sleep is a daily period of time and state of consciousness when the nervous system is relaxed and relatively inactive. Research has shown that sleep is essential to our everyday health and functioning; even a short period without sleep changes our mood, awareness, and overall psychological functioning.
 
Non-REM (or NREM) sleep has four stages. Stage One sleep is the transition from being awake to sleeping; Stage Two is deeper, more relaxing sleep; and Stages Three and Four are deep sleep. Our brain waves are progressively bigger and slower during each stage. REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements but no muscle response. During REM sleep, our brain waves show similar patterns to when we are awake. Common sleep disorders include insomnia (inability to fall or stay asleep), sleepwalking, sleep apnea (difficulty breathing during sleep), and narcolepsy (the tendency to fall asleep).
 
Hypnosis describes a state in which we are unaware of our surroundings or perceive our surroundings as different from what they are. It can help people cope with pain through a process we call dissociation and can entertain a crowd through participants that fulfill the social role of a hypnotized person.
 
To review sleep, see Why We Sleep, Stages of Sleep, Sleep Problems and Disorders, and More on Sleep Disorders. To review hypnosis, read Other States of Consciousness.

 

2f. Explain how substance use disorders are classified; differentiate among major drug categories (stimulants, depressants, antipsychotics, opioids, hallucinogens)

• What are examples of depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogenic drugs?
• What effects do these drugs have?

Sleep is an altered state of consciousness. Psychoactive drugs, such as prescription drugs or illegal substances, can also induce altered states. Drugs impact our brains and behaviors in several ways, and we categorize them by their function.
 
For example, alcohol, marijuana, and barbiturates have a sedative effect on the body and central nervous system. We call these substances depressants because they slow the body and brain functioning down. We call drugs that stimulate the brain and body increase activity stimulants. Stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines increase dopamine activity and often increase body activity or feelings of pleasure.
 
Opioids, such as heroin and morphine, have an analgesic effect on the body and typically decrease pain sensations. Hallucinogens, such as LSD and PCP, profoundly alter the users' perceptions and sensations by causing vivid hallucinations or strange and new body sensations (like ants crawling on one's skin).
 
To review psychoactive drugs, see Substance Use and Abuse, Substance Use Disorders, Commonly Abused Drugs, and Drugs and the Brain.
 

Unit 2 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• central nervous system
• computerized tomography (CT)
• depressant
• endocrine system
• genotype
• hallucinogen
• hormone
• hypnosis
• magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• nature-nurture debate
• neuron
• neurotransmitter
• non-REM sleep
• opioid
• peripheral nervous system
• phenotype
• psychoactive drugs
• REM sleep
• sleep disorder
• split-brain surgery
• stimulant

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

3a. Compare the concepts of sensation and perception

• What is the difference between sensation and perception?

We rely on our five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching) to make sense of the world. Sensory input allows us to understand our surroundings.
 
Sensation is when a sense receptor (such as the eye) detects a stimulus (such as light waves). Perception refers to how we interpret the information our sense receptors collect, such as recognizing a visual stimulus is a stop sign. You can think of sensation as a physiological process, whereas perception is psychological.
 
To review, see Sensation versus Perception and Sensation and Perception.
 

3b. Explain the structure and function of the following sensory systems: visual, auditory, olfactory, somatic, gustatory, and vestibular

• How do the visual and auditory systems work? What are their components?
• How do the chemical senses work?
• How does the vestibular system contribute to our sense of balance and posture?

Our body works in several ways to experience sensory stimulation. Each sense has its own structure and system.
 
For example, we see images using our visual system when light waves enter our eyes (through the pupil), and the lenses in our eyes focus on them. This process projects the image on the fovea, a region of our retina. The fovea contains rods (best for dim light perception) and cones (best for bright light conditions) that help us see the image. The eye is connected to the optic nerve, which connects to various parts of the brain, including the occipital lobe, which processes visual information.
 
In our auditory system, sound stimulation enters our auditory canal, causing vibrations in our eardrum, which in turn moves the ossicles. This movement causes the stapes to tap against the cochlea, which then causes the fluid inside the cochlea to vibrate. This leads to the movement of hair cells, which then send neural messages to the brain via the auditory nerve.
 
Our vestibular system relies on hair cells in the semicircular canals, which are adjacent to the cochlea, to convey information about the position of our head. Combined with information from muscles, skin, joints, and tendons, the vestibular system provides detailed information about body position and movement.
 
We have two chemical senses: taste (our gustatory system) and smell (our olfactory system). Gustation and olfaction rely on receptors to detect certain molecules and send sensory information to the brain.
                    
To review, see Sensation versus Perception, Sensation and Perception, Waves and Wavelengths, More on Waves and Wavelengths, Vision, Hearing, The Ear, Additional Senses, and Taste and Smell.
 

3c. Describe how external stimuli are processed in the brain

• What are the processes of transduction and sensory adaptation?

External stimuli, such as sound, touch, and smell, enter our sensory system. Sensory information is transmitted to the brain through the unique system each sense performs (see learning outcome 3b) from cells that are activated (and fire an action potential) when sensory information is perceived.
 
Transduction refers to how we convert sensory stimulus to an action potential. Sensory information must meet an absolute threshold for our body to perceive them – we call the information below this threshold subliminal messages. Sensory adaptation refers to when we no longer perceive constant or regular stimuli over an extended period of time.
 
To review, see Sensation versus Perception.

 

3d. Explain the principles of perception from Gestalt psychology

• What is the figure-ground relationship?
• What are the Gestalt principles of grouping?

The subfield of Gestalt psychology concerns visual perception. Scholars in this discipline have developed several principles or laws to explain why we perceive images the way we do.
 
For example, Gestalt psychologists believe we separate images in a picture into a figure (what is in focus) and ground (background). According to Gestalt psychology, we tend to group items that are close together in accordance with the law of proximity. The principle of similarity suggests we group similar items together, such as a group of people wearing shirts that are the same color.
 
The law of continuity states we are prone to perceiving continuous, smooth, flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines. The principle of closure suggests we organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts. As these laws demonstrate, Gestalt psychologists argue that we tend to perceive the sum of all parts when we view images.
 
To review, see Gestalt Principles of Perception, How Magicians Exploit Gestalt Principles, and Sensory Illusions.
 

Unit 3 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• auditory system
• external stimuli
• figure
• ground
• gustatory system
• law of continuity
• law of proximity
• olfactory system
• perception
• principle of closure
• principle of similarity
• sensation
• sensory adaptation
• sum of all parts
• transduction
• vestibular system
• visual system

Unit 4: Learning

4a. Define learning

• What is learning?
• How does learning differ from memory?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. This is not how most people use this term. For example, we often say that we learn material in classes. However, in psychology, we remember material and learn behavior. The term "learning" is distinct from reflexes and instincts, which are unlearned and innate.
 
To review, see Principles of Learning.
 

4b. Describe classical conditioning and its principles, including neutral stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response

• Who was Ivan Pavlov?
• What is classical conditioning?
• What are the types of stimuli and responses in classical conditioning?
• What are acquisition, extinction, stimulus discrimination, and stimulus generalization?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, accidentally discovered classical conditioning when he studied digestion. He discovered that dogs who initially salivated only when they had food in their mouths soon began to salivate when they heard or saw cues that indicated food would soon arrive. Pavlov spent his career trying to understand the principles that would account for this surprising discovery. John B. Watson, considered the father of behaviorism, studied Pavlov's concepts in humans.
 
Classical conditioning refers to when a learner associates a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, so the neutral stimulus becomes meaningful. For Pavlov's dogs, the meaningful stimulus was food. Pavlov said that food was an unconditioned stimulus because the dogs did not need to be taught to respond to food. Pavlov called salivation to food the unconditioned response because the dogs did not have to learn to salivate.
 
When the neutral stimulus consistently precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the process of acquisition begins, and the learner begins to respond to the neutral stimulus the same way they initially only responded to the unconditioned stimulus. When this happens, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. He called the response to the conditioned stimulus a conditioned response.
 
The learner makes a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus; this is called stimulus generalization. For example, if a learner learns to blink their eye when a half-full glass of water is tapped with a spoon because the tone has consistently preceded a puff of air blown into their eye, the learner may blink when a full glass of water is tapped with a spoon – even if the sound is not exactly the same. However, the learner will not generalize all sounds. For example, they will show stimulus discrimination between a half-full glass of water and a ringing bell, even if the actual notes produced are fairly similar.
 
Once a conditioned response is established, it can be extinguished by presenting the conditioned stimulus repeatedly without ever presenting the unconditioned stimulus. This causes the learner to gradually stop producing the conditioned response.
 
To review, see Principles of Classical Conditioning, More on Classical Conditioning, and Watson's Theory of Behaviourism.
 

4c. Explain operant conditioning and its principles, including reinforcement and reinforcement schedules, punishment, and shaping

• Who was B.F. Skinner?
• What is operant conditioning?
• What are the types of reinforcements and punishments?
• What is shaping?

B.F. Skinner largely founded the area of operant conditioning. In this type of conditioning, a rewarding stimulus is presented for desirable behavior, and punishment is presented for undesirable behavior. The theory suggests that we are more likely to repeat reinforced or rewarded behavior than behavior that has been punished.
 
Reinforcements are desired outcomes (something the learner wants). Skinner said we can add something desirable or remove something undesirable. Both encourage learners to repeat the behavior that preceded the reinforcement. Adding something was viewed as a "plus" sign, so Skinner referred to it as positive, whereas removing something was visualized as a "subtraction" sign, so Skinner referred to it as negative. Punishments can be positive (something undesirable can be added) or negative (something desirable can be removed).
 
Teachers often use shaping or successive approximation to teach new skills. The teacher can guide the learner toward the desired behavior by rewarding behaviors that are close to the ultimate desired behavior in the beginning and gradually only rewarding the exact behavior they desire.
 
To review, see Principles of Operant Conditioning and Skinner's Operant Conditioning: Rewards and Punishments.
 

4d. Explain observational learning and modeling

• Who was Albert Bandura?
• What is observational learning?
• What is modeling?

Albert Bandura (1925–2021) focused on observational learning, a type of social learning. His most famous study focused on children watching an aggressive act on a video and then having the opportunity to replicate the same behavior they watched. He argued that learners acquire behaviors by modeling, which means observing others and imitating their behaviors. Parents, siblings, and peers serve as our earliest models.
 
To review, see Principles of Observational Learning and Social Learning Theory: Bandura's Bobo Beatdown Experiments.
 

Unit 4 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• acquisition
• Albert Bandura
• B.F. Skinner
• classical conditioning
• conditioned response
• conditioned stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov
• Jon B. Watson
• learning
• modeling
• observational learning
• operant conditioning
• punishment
• reinforcement
• shaping
• stimulus discrimination
• stimulus generalization
• unconditioned response
• unconditioned stimulus

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

5a. Explain the components of language, the development of language, and the relationship between language and thinking

• What are the main components of language?
• How does language develop in infancy and early childhood?
• Does language affect the way a person thinks?

Language is a fundamental skill that distinguishes humans from other animals. Being able to talk about the past and future, describe what we are thinking and feeling, and explain our motives allows us to form close relationships, make plans, and share innovations. But language is a complicated subject to study.
 
Psychologists begin by considering the main components of language, such as phonemes (the smallest units of sound that make up words), morphemes (the smallest units of language that carry any meaning), grammar (the system of rules that govern word construction), syntax (the system of rules that govern sentence construction), and semantics (the rules for deriving meaning from language).
 
Babies are born unable to use language at all, but most are able to communicate fairly well by the age of two years. There are predictable stages of language acquisition, which allow babies to move from reflexive crying at birth, through first words around the first birthday, two-word sentences by the second birthday, and full sentences by three to five years of age. As children gain competence with their first language, they show evidence that they recognize the rules of grammar by displaying overgeneralization, which is treating all words as if they were regular.
 
Psychologists have explored whether the words available within a language determine the way speakers think about things or if the way speakers think about things determines the language they use. Cross-language studies reveal that languages differ in the number of words they devote to explain particular things in their surroundings, but it is unclear whether this affects the way the speakers think about that thing.
 
To review, see Principles of Language and Components of Language and Language Acquisition.
 

5b. Explain problem-solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics, and factors that interfere with problem-solving and decision-making

• What is a problem-solving strategy?
• What is an algorithm?
• What is a heuristic?
• What factors can interfere with our ability to solve problems effectively?

We confront problems every day. What should we have for dinner? Should we go to college? What show should we watch on TV? Psychologists have studied the strategies people use to solve problems and put them into two main categories: Algorithms – step-by-step strategies that can be time-consuming but are more likely to produce sound results, and heuristics – rule-of-thumb strategies that are quicker but more prone to error.
 
Many thinking errors impede our ability to solve problems successfully, such as mental set (our expectation for how the problem could be solved interferes with our successful solution of the problem), functional fixedness (our focus on only one use for an object interferes with us using that object in another way), anchoring bias (relying on one piece of information when making judgments), confirmation bias (our tendency to seek out information that supports what we already believe and ignore information that would show us we are wrong), and more.
 
To review, see Principles of Problem Solving and Problem-Solving, Biases, and Judgement Errors.
 

5c. Define intelligence and its theories, emotional intelligence and creativity, the development of intelligence tests, the history and use of IQ tests, the purposes and benefits of intelligence testing, and factors that affect intelligence

• What is intelligence?
• What is creativity?
• What is emotional intelligence?
• What theories of intelligence have been developed?
• How are intelligence tests developed?
• How have intelligence tests been used?
• What factors affect intelligence?

The topic of intelligence is controversial. Psychologists define intelligence as the ability to learn from and adapt to our environment. Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful responses. Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize emotions in yourself and in others and to regulate your own emotions.
 
There are many theories of intelligence. Spearman's g factor assumes there is one basic general intelligence capability. Sternberg's triarchic theory assumes there are three types of intelligence. Gardner's multiple intelligences theory proposes there are at least eight types of intelligence.
 
Intelligence tests are standardized, which means test administrators must be trained to administer, score, and interpret the results. Scores are interpreted relative to norms, which are average scores based on a representative sample of test-takers (a group of people who match the overall population). The scores of a representative sample fall into a bell curve, which is a symmetrical distribution where most scores cluster around the average score of 100.
 
We use intelligence tests for student placement – to identify students who need additional resources because their intelligence is in the top two percent or the bottom two percent of the bell curve – and for a variety of other purposes. Intelligence is determined mostly by genes, but the environment can affect how these genes are expressed. The range of reaction reflects the finding that human intelligence has a fixed range that is set by genes, but the environment determines where the person's intelligence falls within that range.
 
To review, see Intelligence and Creativity, Measures of Intelligence, Intelligence and General Intelligence Theory, Creativity, Creative Thinkers, and the Components of Creativity, The Source of Intelligence, and How IQ and Intelligence Affect Our Lives.

 

5d. Discuss basic memory functions, the three stages of memory storage, and the types of memory

• What are the stages of memory processing?
• What is the difference between semantic and episodic memory?
• How is long-term memory further divided?

Memory, our system of storing and retrieving information, is similar to a computer-based information processing system. We process memory in this order: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

1. During the encoding stage, our brain receives or inputs new information. This process is enhanced when meaning is attached to new information.
2. After our brain encodes the information, it moves it into storage for retention. Memory passes through three stages as it moves into storage: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
3. Retrieval or recall, the final part of the system, refers to drawing on memory when we need it. We can differentiate further between recall (accessing information without cues) and recognition (identifying previously learned information via comparisons).

We can subdivide long-term memory into explicit or declarative memory (memory we personally experience) and implicit or non-declarative memory (not part of our consciousness, such as the memory that is formed during behaviors).
 
Semantic memory and episodic memory are components of explicit/declarative memory (memories that we can try to recall consciously). Semantic memory refers to words, concepts, and facts, whereas episodic memory refers to our previous experiences. Only long-term memory can be recalled at a later point in time.
 
To review, see How Memory Functions, Simply Explained: Explicit and Implicit Knowledge, Memory: The Modal Model, and Long Term Memory.
 

5e. Explain the brain functions involved in memory, the specific roles of the most important structures, times when memory is faulty, and ways to improve memory

• What parts of the brain are involved in memory processing?
• What are common strategies to enhance memory functioning?
• What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?
• How does memory construction contribute to memory errors?
• What are some ways to improve memory?

Scientists have shown that specific parts of the brain are involved in the memory process. The amygdala regulates and controls emotions and can affect how memories are stored (such as by the stress or emotion they are associated with). There is also evidence that the hippocampus helps retain spatial memories and attaches meaning to memories. Finally, the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex are responsible for forming implicit memories (that is, procedural memory). Aside from specific parts of the brain, scientists believe neurotransmitters affect memory storage.
 
The various parts of the brain that affect memory (amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) work together to form, store, and retrieve information. However, our brains sometimes fail (such as if we experience head trauma), and we cannot form new information or retrieve previous memories. For example, patients diagnosed with anterograde amnesia cannot remember new information; those suffering from retrograde amnesia cannot recall events or information prior to a memory-related injury.
 
Forensic, criminal, and social psychologists point out that people are susceptible to memory construction errors. Common memory problems that impede adequate recall of events (which witnesses often experience) include suggestibility, eyewitness misidentification, and the misinformation effect. Forgetting is another way memory can be faulty. Forgetting may be due to inadequate encoding (known as encoding failure) or due to one or more of Schacter's seven sins of forgetting.
 
We can employ several strategies to improve our memory, such as chunking, elaborative rehearsal, and mnemonic devices. Chunking refers to organizing information into chunks or bits of information, such as remembering our social security number in a pattern of three and two digits (XXX-XX-XXX) rather than memorizing individual digits. Elaborative rehearsal is a process where we attribute meaning to new information to already stored information. Mnemonic devices help us retain new information.
 
To review, see Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory, Problems with Memory, The Neurological Processes of Memory Creation, and How to Enhance Memory.
 

Unit 5 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• algorithms
• amnesia
• amygdala
• cerebellum
• chunking
• creativity
• elaborative rehearsal
• emotional intelligence
• encoding
• encoding failure
• episodic memory
• explicit memory
• grammar
• heuristics
• hippocampus
• implicit memory
• intelligence
• intelligence test
• memory
• mnemonic devices
• morpheme
• overgeneralization
• phoneme
• prefrontal cortex
• retrieval
• semantic memory
• semantics
• storage
• syntax
• thinking errors

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

6a. Categorize famous psychologists according to their studies and theories of development, including Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, John Bowlby, Lev Vygotsky, and Harry Harlow

• What does Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development suggest?
• What are the stages of development in Jean Piaget's theory?
• Which psychologists studied attachment? What do their theories suggest?

Sigmund Freud developed the theory of psychosexual development, which claims personality is determined at an early age. His theory is based on pleasure-seeking behaviors and is characterized by five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
 
Erik Erikson also focused on children's emotional and social development, but Jean Piaget focused on children's cognitive development. Piaget focused on how children develop logic and learn how to apply logical operations. In this model, he differentiates four stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
 
Harry Harlow (1905–1981), John Bowlby (1907–1990), and Mary Ainsworth (1913–1999) studied the attachments, bonds, and relationships children form with their primary caregivers. The relationships we have with family and friends are a foundation of childhood and affect child and human development.
 
Harlow worked with monkeys to understand the infant/mother bond. He discovered there is more to the bond between mother and child than mere nourishment.
 
Bowlby developed a more formalized attachment theory and differentiated between secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized attachments. Children with healthy attachments have secure relationships with their parents and are allowed to explore their surroundings under a caring eye. A secure child has a parent who is responsive to their needs; they engage in mutually-enjoyable interactions.
 
Ainsworth studied the separation between infants/toddlers and their mothers and concluded there are three types of attachment: secure, avoidant, and resistant. Like Bowlby, Ainsworth finds secure attachments are characterized by responsive and attentive parents.
 
To review, see Principles of Lifespan Development and Lifespan Theories.

 

6b. Compare the major theories of human development

• What are some differences between Sigmund Freud's and Erik Erikson's development theories?
• What are some differences between Jean Piaget's and Lawrence Kohlberg's theories?

Sigmund Freud was concerned with childhood development, but Erik Erikson focused on a person's entire lifespan. Freud's model was deterministic and viewed childhood as the time when a person's personality was determined. Erikson provided more autonomy to the individual by suggesting each person struggles with different conflicts at various stages in their life and that personality is dependent on the resolution of conflicts. Both theorists offer stages of human development.
 
Jean Piaget was concerned with children's cognitive development and tried to understand how they perceive and make sense of the world. Lawrence Kohlberg was concerned with children's moral development. Piaget developed his work based on observable interactions with children, whereas Kohlberg had to rely on hypothesized situations.
 
Each of these theorists presented a unique way of thinking about childhood and human development. Ample research supports each approach, and there is no consensus that only one theorist is correct. Today's psychologists draw on all of these foundations.
 
To review, see Lifespan Theories.
 

6c. Identify the major milestones of each period of lifespan development

• What are some physical developmental milestones young children should hit? For example, at what age should children be able to name familiar things?
• What are some major features of social and physical development for adolescents?
• What are the stages of adulthood?

Children experience rapid physical development from birth until early childhood. Children grow in height and weight, and their brains develop just as quickly. As children develop their fine and motor skills, parents can look for several milestones.
 
For example, by the age of two, children should be able to kick a ball and communicate in simple sentences. At age three, we expect children to climb stairs and pedal a tricycle, four-year-olds should be able to catch a ball and remember songs and rhymes, and five-year-olds should be able to use a fork and spoon.
 
Adolescence is a socially-constructed stage of development when young people form their own identities and slowly retreat from parental oversight. Puberty usually marks the onset of this stage. Adolescents' sexual and reproductive systems mature, and their brains continue to grow. Boys and girls also grow rapidly in height during this stage, and the frontal lobe of the brain continues to develop.
 
Adulthood is divided into three stages: early adulthood (roughly age 20-40), middle adulthood (40-60), and late adulthood (60 and older). Once we reach early adulthood, our physical development is complete. Our physical abilities reach their peak during the early part of this stage. Physical decline begins during middle adulthood. You may see your first wrinkles, and your vision may begin to decline. Late adulthood is characterized by more decline, such as increased skin elasticity, weight gain, and problems with sensory stimulation. The brain may also slow down during this stage, leading to common problems such as memory loss and dementia.
 
To review, see Stages of Development and Social and Emotional Development in Infancy.
 

6d. Describe the stages of human prenatal development and influences during pregnancy

• What are the stages of prenatal development?
• Which harmful agents can affect prenatal development?

Studying the human lifespan is not complete without an examination of the biology and process of conception and pregnancy. The first two weeks of pregnancy are called the germinal stage of development, when the child's DNA is created. Cells rapidly multiply. The embryonic stage lasts until week eight of pregnancy. During this stage, the embryo is formed, and a placenta develops. The last stage of prenatal development, the fetal stage, lasts from weeks nine through birth (week 40). Sex organs begin to develop during the early part of this stage, and body parts and internal organs develop later.
 
Growing embryos experience much of what their mothers do; they can hear sounds and digest the same food. Pregnant women are advised to avoid harmful agents such as alcohol, nicotine, and illegal substances because scientists have linked these teratogens to negative effects on a developing fetus.
 
For example, the children of mothers who consumed a lot of alcohol during pregnancy may develop lower intelligence and demonstrate changed facial features, such as smaller heads and eye sizes.
 
To review, see Stages of Development and Prenatal Development.
 

6e. Discuss the main issues related to death and dying

• What is hospice care?
• What are the five stages of grief?
• What are the legal issues surrounding end-of-life decisions?

In American culture, many people avoid discussions of death and dying because they can be difficult. Most people hope they have a good death, which usually refers to the context, sense of control, and the way a person dies.
 
Hospice care can help ensure a good death. This service involves social workers, nurses, and a care team who helps people face a terminal diagnosis and their family deal with the end of life. When a person confronts their own terminal diagnosis or that of their loved one, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross said they experience five stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
 
When making end-of-life decisions, some people create a living will or an advance directive to give specific instructions for how family members and medical personnel should proceed in the event of a terminal illness. A Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order informs healthcare professionals of a person's intent to reject extraordinary life-saving efforts, such as intubation or defibrillation. Some people appoint a health care proxy to make decisions for them if they have declining health or foresee they may be unable to make their own health care decisions one day.
 
To review, see Death and Dying and The Wisdom of Grief and Grieving.
 

Unit 6 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• adolescence
• attachment theory
• early adulthood
• embryonic stage
• Erik Erikson
• fetal stage
• five stages of grief
• germinal stage
• Harry Harlow
• Jean Piaget
• John Bowlby
• late adulthood
• Lawrence Kohlberg
• middle adulthood
• milestone
• pregnancy
• puberty
• Sigmund Freud

Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

7a. Define motivation, explain the psychological factors that affect hunger and eating, and sexual behavior

• What do psychologists mean by the term "motivation"?
• What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
• What are the characteristics of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
• Why do we get hungry, and how do we gain excess weight?
• What factors contribute to eating disorders?
• Which factors determine sexual behavior and motivation?
• What did Alfred Kinsey, William Masters, and Virginia Johnson contribute to our understanding of sexuality and sexual response?
• What do the terms "sexual orientation" and "gender identity" describe?

Motivation directs our behavior toward goals that satisfy our needs. Intrinsic motivators refer to the drives within us, which may differ between individuals. Extrinsic motivators refer to factors in the environment that encourage us to behave in certain ways. Individuals often respond to extrinsic motivators in different ways.
 
Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, which explained that satisfying some needs (like hunger and safety) is more important than others (like belonging and esteem) – they are more motivating. As individuals reliably satisfy more pressing needs, they can devote more energy to pursuing higher needs.
 
Biological factors, such as hormones, blood sugar, and stomach rumbling, in addition to psychological factors, such as stress, boredom, and the availability of attractive food, contribute to hunger. If we reliably consume more calories than we can burn, we will alter our set point and gain weight. Once our set point is reset, it is difficult to return it to its original state.
 
Eating disorders are common among people who fear weight gain. They may display bulimia nervosa (binging on a large amount of calorie-dense food, then purging by vomiting, excess exercise, and/or use of laxatives and diuretics) or anorexia nervosa (restricting food intake to a small caloric amount).
 
Many of our sexual behaviors are biologically based. The limbic system contains structures that govern sexual behavior and the motivation to engage in sexual behavior. Alfred Kinsey conducted surveys describing human sexual behavior that were published in the late 1940s and early 1950s. William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted observational studies in their laboratory of human sexual response cycles, which described how the body responds as it moves through the phases of the response cycle.
 
Sexual orientation refers to the sex of the people we are emotionally, romantically, and erotically attracted to. Gender identity refers to how we internalize the roles and behaviors associated with one sex or the other or both.
 
To review, see Principles of Motivation, Hunger and Eating, Sexual Behavior, Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation, Maslow's Pyramid and the Hierarchy of Needs, Anorexia Nervosa, and The Sexual Response Cycle.
 

7b. Explain the main theories of emotion, the brain areas involved in emotion, and the factors involved in recognizing emotional expression

• What are the main theories of emotion?
• What role does the limbic system play in emotional processing?
• How do we produce and recognize emotional expressions?

Four main theories of emotion explain how we experience emotions. The James-Lange theory claims that physiological arousal causes emotion. The Cannon-Bard theory claims physiological arousal occurs at the same time as emotion. The Schacter-Singer two-factor theory claims physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal occur at the same time, which causes emotion. Lazarus' cognitive-mediational theory claims physiological arousal causes cognitive appraisal, which in turn causes emotion.
 
Two structures in the limbic system – the amygdala and the hypothalamus – play a significant role in how we regulate and process emotion.
 
Cultural display rules often dictate how and when we express emotions. However, universal expressions accompany the basic emotions of happiness, surprise, sadness, fright, disgust, contempt, and anger.
 
To review, see Principles of Emotion and Evolutionary Theory of Emotion.
 

7c. Define personality and describe early theories of personality

• What is personality?
• What were the earliest theories of personality?
• What are the modern theories of personality?

Personality refers to the long-term traits and patterns that make us think, behave, and feel the way we do. Personality is what makes us who we are and what differentiates us from others.
 
Theorists have studied personality and its development since ancient Greece. Hippocrates (460–370 BCE) identified four basic temperaments (choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic). Galen (129–216) believed personality results from imbalances in these temperaments. Franz Gall (1758–1828), a German physician, examined patients' brain size in relation to their personalities. Phrenology became an early focus in this line of inquiry, although it has since been discredited.
 
Several theorists, including Immanuel Kant and Wilhelm Wundt, have added their thoughts about the four basic temperaments originally introduced hundreds of years ago. For example, Wundt used these temperaments to understand personality through two major axes: emotional/nonemotional and changeable/unchangeable.
 
Sigmund Freud introduced the first complete theory of personality. According to Freud's psychodynamic perspective, the id contains our most primitive instincts (hunger, thirst, sex) and houses the pleasure principle, which seeks immediate gratification. The id is present from birth onwards, while the superego develops over time as children navigate rules and order. The superego is essentially our conscience and tells us what our expected behaviors are.
 
The ego is the rational part of our personality. Freud viewed this part as our true self and how others perceive us. The ego balances the conflicting id and superego drives by finding a middle ground. Freud further suggested that our mind makes use of defense mechanisms (e.g., denial, displacement, repression) to reduce the anxiety that often arises from these conflicts.
 
Freud developed stages of psychodynamic development starting with oral at birth, anal during early toddler years, phallic, latency, and lastly, genital during the adolescent years. Each stage is marked by a pleasure fixation (id drive). His theory was controversial when first introduced but has dominated much of the psychology literature.
 
Freud's theory believed underlying sexual and aggressive drives motivate our behaviors, while Alfred Adler believed our underlying feelings of inferiority motivate us to feelings of superiority which guide our behaviors, thoughts, and actions. Unlike Freud, Adler also embraced the role of social relationships in developing personality and examined how birth order affects personality.
 
Unlike Freud's theory, Erik Erikson's theory focused on personality development throughout our entire lifetime. Freud focused on the significance of childhood years. Further, Erikson suggested our personality is a product of how we resolve various conflicts throughout our lifespan.
 
Carl Jung introduced the school of analytical psychology and focused on the role of a collective unconscious. Unlike Freud, Jung assumed we all have shared collective unconscious memories and experiences.
 
Karen Horney was the first woman to take a serious look at Freud's theory. Like Jung, she concentrated on reaching patients' full potential through psychoanalysis. Freud focused on uncovering childhood experiences. Horney's theory addressed the role of unconscious anxiety. She identified three ways of coping: moving toward people, moving against people, and moving away from people.
 
Those who follow B.F. Skinner's behaviorist perspective believe personality is not a product of genes but results from learned behaviors that have been reinforced. Albert Bandura believed cognition or thought and situation or context also affect behaviors. He termed the idea of reciprocal determinism, which is at the heart of the social-cognitive perspective.
 
Within this social-cognitive perspective, Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, namely the level of confidence we have in our abilities. Julian Rotter discussed the locus of control, referring to the belief of how much control we have over our lives.
 
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers favored the humanistic approach, which suggests we should focus on our personal depth and how we interpret the meaning of an experience to understand personality. They studied the characteristics of healthy, productive people and the concept of the self.
 
The biological approach views personality as innate – this research examined the outcomes of twins who are reared together and apart (if they are adopted) and how their environment affects their personalities.
 
Walter Mischel studied self-regulation (self-control) with a group of preschoolers by presenting them with one marshmallow. He gave the children a choice when he had to leave the room: either eat one marshmallow now or wait for him to return when they could eat two marshmallows. He followed the children's academic careers for several years and found that the children who could wait for his return and thus self-regulate had better educational outcomes compared to children who chose to eat the marshmallow right away.
 
Raymond Cattell built on the work of Gordon Allport in identifying personality traits. Cattell substantially narrowed Allport's list of character traits and believed multiple traits shape our personality. He identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension.
 
To review, see What Is Personality, Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective, Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney, Myers Briggs Personality Types Explained, Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Development, Learning Approaches, Personality as the Behaviorist Views It, Humanistic Approaches, Carl Rogers' Theory of Personality, Biological Approaches to Psychology, Trait Theorists, and The Big Five Personality Traits.
 

7d. Interpret cultural understandings of personality

• What are the personality differences between people from collectivist cultures and individualist cultures?
• What are the approaches to studying personality in a cultural context?

Personality is partly genetic, but plenty of evidence shows it is also shaped by culture. We should not be surprised to see personality differences among cultures, especially since individualistic cultures encourage different behaviors (independence, boldness, and a strong sense of self) than collectivist cultures.
 
Psychologists use the cultural-comparative approach to study cultural differences and compare cultures with Western cultural theories. Psychologists also use the indigenous approach, which develops new measures of personality specifically for the culture they are examining. The combined approach combines these two strategies to develop new tools and compare the results with Western cultural theories and evidence.
 
To review, see Cultural Understandings of Personality and Culture and Personality.

 

7e. Discuss personality assessment

• What are the differences between self-report and projective personality tests? What are some examples of each?
• How have popular personality assessment tests been modified to adapt to minority populations?

Psychologists have created several personality assessment techniques to measure personality. Self-report assessments such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) ask respondents to rate answer choices on Likert scales to a host of statements. The MMPI takes a few hours to administer. Generally, these self-report assessments yield more reliable and valid results than projective inventories. Clinicians favor the MMPI because they can summarize the results in distinct clinical profiles.
 
Several subjective projective tests measure personality. For example, the Rorschach Inkblot test asks respondents to describe what an Inkblot might depict. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) asks respondents to tell a story about a picture. The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Bank (RISB) asks respondents to finish a sentence. Projective tests are generally not as reliable or valid as self-report measures, although they are still used in several settings.
 
Psychologists have introduced two personality tests for minority populations since the conventional assessments have been shown to have bias. They modified the TAT for African-Americans to create the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB). They developed the TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test for Hispanic populations.
 
To review, see Personality Assessment and More on Personality Assessment.
 

Unit 7 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• Abraham Maslow
• Alfred Adler
• Alfred Kinsey
• biological factors
• Cannon-Bard theory
• Carl Jung
• Carl Rogers
• collective unconscious
• collectivist cultures
• combined approach
• cultural-comparative approach
• cultural display rules
• eating disorders
• ego
• extrinsic motivators
• four basic temperaments
• gender identity
• hierarchy of needs
• hypothalamus
• id
• indigenous approach
• individualistic cultures
• intrinsic motivators
• James-Lange theory
• Karen Horney
• Lazarus' cognitive-mediational theory
• locus of control
• motivation
• personality
• personality assessment
• phrenology
• psychological factors
• Raymond Cattell
• reciprocal determinism
• Schacter-Singer two-factor theory
• self-efficacy
• sexual orientation
• superego
• Virginia Johnson
• Walter Mischel
• William Masters

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

8a. Define the subfield of psychopathology and psychological disorders

• What is psychopathology?
• What does the term "harmful dysfunction" mean?
• What are the criteria for defining the symptoms of a psychological disorder?

Scientists and clinicians who study psychopathology research and treat psychological disorders. Psychological disorders are conditions that persist for several weeks, meet diagnostic symptoms, and negatively impact a patient's life. Examples of psychological disorders include mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorders, anxiety disorders including phobias and panic disorders, and psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.
 
Harmful dysfunction refers to the idea that psychological disorders lead to negative consequences for the individual. A disorder may interfere with how a person lives their lives, their employability, their ability to form close relationships, and other factors. The criteria for defining a psychological disorder requires all three of the following: 1. the behavior is atypical, 2. the person is distressed by the behavior (or others are distressed for them), and 3. the behavior has harmful consequences.
 
Clinical psychologists who specialize in psychopathology see patients to diagnose psychological disorders and develop treatment plans depending on the patient's situation. These may include talk therapy, medication, or a combination. Treatment may occur in a therapist's office or in a hospital, community mental health center, or another location.
 
To review, see What Are Psychological Disorders?, Ten Common Mental Illnesses, and What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness.
 

8b. Identify perspectives on psychological disorders

• What does the harmful dysfunction model mean? How does it relate to the APA definition of psychological disorders?
• What are the differences and similarities between the DSM and ICD?
• What is the diathesis-stress model?

Some people suggest psychological disorders are harmful dysfunctions, with an emphasis on those that are harmful. Since cultural variations define dysfunctions differently for different groups of people, what makes something a true psychological disorder is when the dysfunction becomes harmful to the patient. The American Psychological Association (APA) draws on this definition to outline a definition for psychological disorders.
 
The APA defines psychological disorders as conditions that exhibit significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. Moreover, these disturbances reflect a biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction that causes significant stress in a patient's life. In addition, these disturbances are not culturally appropriate.
 
Psychologists use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) reference manuals to diagnose psychological disorders. The DSM is used more frequently in the United States since it is published by the APA, while the ICD is used more widely elsewhere since it is published by the World Health Organization (WHO).
 
Various perspectives explain psychological disorders. Historically, people assumed supernatural events caused psychological disorders to develop. The biological perspective argues that genes and biological factors such as brain abnormalities and chemical imbalances cause psychological disorders. The diathesis-stress model suggests that biological and psychosocial factors predict the occurrence of psychological disorders – some people are predisposed to experiencing these disorders during their lifetimes.
 
To review, see Perspectives on Psychological Disorders.
 

8c. Classify psychological disorders

• Why are classification systems necessary for psychopathology?
• What is the DSM-5? How has the DSM changed over time?
• Which disorders are the most common?

A classification system is needed to diagnose someone who is distressed and experiencing dysfunction to ensure professionals make the same conclusion about a set of symptoms.
 
Mental health professionals in the United States use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) to classify psychological disorders. Note that the authors of the DSM have removed some disorders (such as homosexuality) and added others (such as post-traumatic stress disorder). Each revision of the DSM provides new data to give professionals confidence that the classification system is accurate.
 
The most common disorders in the United States are major depressive disorder, alcohol abuse disorder, specific phobia, and social anxiety disorder.
 
To review, see Diagnosing and Classifying Psychological Disorders and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.
 

8d. Describe commonly diagnosed psychological disorders and their symptoms, including anxiety disorders, OCD, PTSD, mood disorders, schizophrenia, dissociative disorders, disorders in childhood, and personality disorders

• What types of symptoms does someone with anxiety disorder experience? How does a panic disorder differ from an anxiety disorder?
• How are major depressive and manic disorders part of bipolar disorder? What is the biological basis for these mood disorders?
• What characterizes a schizotypal personality?

Clinical psychologists use the DSM or ICD to diagnose psychological disorders. These reference manuals contain checklists of symptoms to identify certain diagnostic criteria. Clinical psychologists interview patients to evaluate their diagnoses. They also use diagnostic tests specific to each condition.
 
For example, someone who suffers from generalized anxiety disorder might experience increased heartbeat when they confront a stimulus they are afraid of or panic attacks when they think about it. Patients diagnosed with panic disorders experience recurring panic attacks for at least one month and worry about the attack and its consequences.
 
Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) report intrusive thoughts and urges (obsessions) and feel forced to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions). For example, a patient may report thoughts about remaining clean or feeling dirty and engage in excessive hand-washing and showering.
 
Patients diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have witnessed or experienced a traumatic event that causes stressful responses, such as flashback memories where they experience the traumatic event over and over.
 
Mood disorders include states of sadness and euphoria. Patients diagnosed with depressive disorders may report prolonged states of sadness, feelings of despair, and a general lack of interest. Some may have suicidal ideations. Patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder experience at least one manic episode and struggle with episodes of depression. There is some biological evidence for mood disorders, especially related to an imbalance of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine.
            
Psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia are marked by a complete breakdown of thoughts, perceptions, emotions, and behavior. Patients with schizophrenia experience delusions (feelings of grandiosity such as being king of the world) and demonstrate disorganized thinking (absence of logic in thought or making connections), disorganized behaviors such as wearing inappropriate clothing such as heavy winter clothes during the summer heat, and disorganized emotional responses such as a lack of empathy.
 
Patients with personality disorders exhibit consistent personality traits that differ from cultural expectations and variations. These are usually evident in patients' interactions with others. For example, a person with a schizotypal personality displays strange eccentricities in thought, perception, emotion, speech, and behavior. They may be overly suspicious or paranoid with idiosyncratic or rambling speech and exhibit discomfort in social situations. Most schizotypal people have few friends and often experience extreme social anxiety.
 
To review, see Anxiety Disorders, Seven Types of Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), More on PTSD, Mood and Related Disorders, Bipolar Disorder versus Depression, Schizophrenia, What is it Like to Have Schizophrenia?, Dissociative Disorders, Five Signs You Are Experiencing Dissociation, Disorders in Childhood, ADHD: Signs, Symptoms, Solutions, Personality Disorders, and Ten Personality Disorders.
 

8e. Compare current psychological therapies, including psychodynamic therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, humanistic therapy, and biomedical therapy

• How could a behavioral therapist work with a patient suffering from an anxiety disorder?
• What happens during a psychoanalytic therapy session?
• Which school of psychology does exposure therapy draw upon? For what types of psychological disorders is it most useful?

Clinical psychologists are trained to diagnose psychological disorders and provide treatment. Treatment varies according to the patient, diagnosis, and context.
 
Psychologists employ several perspectives and specializations when treating psychological disorders. For example, a behavioral therapist may help patients unlearn negatively paired associations with the anxiety-inducing stimulus through operant or classical conditioning techniques.
 
Other clinicians may ask patients undergoing psychoanalytic therapy to describe their dreams or free associate to uncover unconscious ideas or concepts. Exposure therapy draws upon behaviorism principles and is best suited to treat patients experiencing anxieties and phobias.
 
To review, see Types of Treatment, Treatment Modalities, Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders: A Special Case, and The Sociocultural Model and Therapy Utilization.

 

Unit 8 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.
Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• American Psychological Association (APA)
• bipolar disorder
• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
• diathesis-stress model
• generalized anxiety disorder
• harmful dysfunction
• International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
• mood disorders
• obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• personality disorders
• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• psychological disorder
• psychopathology
• psychotic disorders
• schizophrenia
• treatment
• World Health Organization (WHO)

Unit 9: Social Psychology

9a. Define social psychology

• What is the difference between situationism and dispositionism?
• What is the fundamental attribution error? Provide real-life examples.
• In which type of culture is the fundamental attribution error most commonly found?
• What is self-serving bias?

Social psychology is concerned with understanding people's behavior, with explanations for why we think or behave the way we do.
 
Human behaviors result from internal factors (personality traits) and external factors (situations, social context). Situationism is the belief that our immediate environment and surroundings determine our behavior. In contrast, dispositionism believes internal factors determine our behavior.
 
Western cultures, such as the United States, favor a dispositionism view and assume we are aware of our own choices and behaviors. This may cause us to conclude behavior is a function of an internal trait without considering the social context.
 
The fundamental attribution error believes human behavior is solely based on internal traits (not taking the situation into account). Research shows that people from individualistic cultures (which focus on individual achievement and autonomy) tend to commit fundamental attribution errors more frequently. People from Western cultures usually associate internal dispositions with behavior. The fundamental attribution error highlights this phenomenon and claims people assume internal factors/traits are to blame for human behavior rather than consider the context of a situation.
 
For example, let's say you are driving, and the car in front of you suddenly swerves out of control. People from Western cultures may conclude the driver is reckless or inexperienced without considering the external situation. However, the driver may be swerving to avoid hitting an animal on the road, or they may be experiencing a health emergency.
 
Actor-observer bias expands on fundamental attribution error. These individuals assume others behave the way they do according to internal traits (fundamental attribution error), but their own behavior is due to situational factors. For example, this individual might blame their poor exam score on the noisy exam room or claim their teacher failed to explain the concepts properly. They may not accept that they earned a poor grade because they failed to study or ask for tutoring help.
 
We commit self-serving bias when we make internal attribution for our successes (I am an excellent tennis player) and fail to take situational factors into account (the sun was shining in my opponent's eyes during the match).
 
The just world hypothesis stipulates we all get what we deserve. For example, we may assume a homeless person did something wrong to deserve their predicament.
 
We adopt cognitive biases to explain human behavior in social settings. Social psychology argues we should view behavior and actions in context.
 
To review, see Principles of Social Psychology, A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, and Errors in Attribution.
 

9b. Describe self-presentation, attitudes, and persuasion

• What do social psychologists mean by "attitude"?
• What is cognitive dissonance?
• How are attitudes changed through persuasion?
• How do the peripheral and central routes of persuasion differ?
• What was the Stanford prison experiment? Who was the researcher who pioneered this study?

Social psychologists have coined several terms to explain social behaviors. For example, an attitude refers to an evaluation or judgment we make about a person, idea, or object. Cognitive dissonance means holding two or more opposing views or attitudes. Smokers are prime examples of this, since most are aware of the bad health effects of smoking, yet they choose to participate in unhealthy behavior. In social psychological terms, these smokers experience cognitive dissonance.
 
Persuasion refers to changing your attitude based on communication with another person. The central route to persuasion relies on facts and statistics, whereas the peripheral route relies on linking positive emotions with the message being conveyed.
 
Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford prison experiment, where participants were randomly assigned to the roles of prison guards or prisoners in a fake prison set up in the basement of Stanford University. Zimbardo wanted to explore the power of social roles and norms. He had to end the experiment early because the participants exhibited increasingly aggressive behaviors.
 
To review, see Principles of Self-Presentation, The Stanford Prison Experiment, Attitudes and Persuasion, and Cognitive Dissonance.
 

9c. Compare conformity, compliance, and obedience

• What is conformity? Who researched this concept?
• What is obedience, and how was it tested in Milgram's experiment?
• What are groupthink, social facilitation, and social loafing?

In a group context, conformity can occur when you change your behavior or attitude to align with a group. In a famous study, Solomon Asch (1907–1996) found this conformity effect (Asch effect) when a group convinced a research participant of an untrue fact and caused the participant to change their attitude to conform to the consensus of the group.
 
Obedience refers to changing your behavior due to a request from an authority figure. Stanley Milgram conducted a famous experiment on obedience to authority at Yale University, showing that many people will obey a command (exhibit compliance) to authority because they like to please authority figures or they are afraid of negative consequences. Milgram used confederates to pressure study participants to administer (fake) electric shocks to other people. The participants did not know the shocks were never administered, and many assumed they had caused great bodily harm to another person when they left his experiment.
 
A group can influence individual behavior in several ways. If the group is highly cohesive, focused on a single task, with a charismatic leader, the members of the group may display groupthink – expressing agreement with the group, even when the member personally disagrees. Social facilitation occurs when a person performs better in the presence of others than they would when they are alone. When a group is given a task to complete, and the members will all receive the same reward, some members may display social loafing – decreased effort in the presence of others.
 
To review, see Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience, Asch's Conformity Experiment: Groupthink, and The Milgram Experiment: When Ordinary People Do Terrible Things.
 

9d. Explain prejudice and discrimination

• What are prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination?
• Why do prejudice and discrimination exist?

Prejudice refers to a negative attitude or feeling toward an individual based on their membership in a particular social group. A stereotype is a negative belief about individuals based on their membership in a certain group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes are often precursors to the development of prejudice. Discrimination refers to negative actions toward an individual due to their membership in a particular group.
 
Many factors contribute to the development of stereotypes and prejudice. One is in-group/out-group bias, where we tend to favor members of our own in-group and distrust and assume negative things about the out-group. Scapegoating also fosters prejudicial thinking; when something goes wrong that is out of our control, we may blame an out-group for our difficulties.
 
To review, see Prejudice and Discrimination, Prejudice and Stereotyping, and The Three Components of Prejudice.
 

9e. Explain the theories and types of aggression and prosocial behavior

• What is aggression?
• What is the bystander effect? Provide real-life examples.
• What is altruism?
• How does the triangular theory of love explain different kinds of love?
• What is the social exchange theory of relationships?

Psychologists define aggression as when people inflict harm on another. It may be intentional (hostile aggression) or a byproduct of pursuing their own goals (instrumental aggression).
 
When several people witness the same event, they are less likely to interfere or act when needed than they would if they were alone when they witnessed the event. We call this the bystander effect. For example, a person may not offer money or food to a homeless person on the street, assuming others will.
 
Altruism refers to a person's desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. Empathy –  the capacity to understand another person's perspective and feelings – helps fuel altruistic behavior.
 
The triangular theory of love asserts there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. One or more of these three components can be present on their own, in combination with another, or with all three components present. These combinations allow for seven different types of love relationships.
 
Social exchange theory says we seek to maximize the benefits of social exchanges and minimize the costs. If a relationship has more positives than negatives, the participants are more likely to remain in the relationship.
 
To review, see Principles of Aggression, Ostracism and Aggression, Prosocial Behavior, and Aggression and Prosocial Behaviour.
 

Unit 9 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• actor-observer bias
• aggression
• altruism
• attitude
• bystander effect
• cognitive bias
• cognitive dissonance
• compliance
• conformity
• discrimination
• dispositionism
• empathy
• fundamental attribution error
• groupthink
• just world hypothesis
• obedience
• persuasion
• Philip Zimbardo
• prejudice
• self-serving bias
• situationism
• social exchange theory
• social facilitation
• social loafing
• social psychology
• Solomon Asch
• Stanford prison experiment
• Stanley Milgram
• stereotype
• triangular theory of love

Unit 10: Industrial and Organizational Psychology

10a. Define the subfield of industrial/organizational psychology and explain its history

• What is the subfield of industrial/organizational psychology?
• How has this subfield developed?

The subfield of industrial/organizational psychology (or I/O psychology) applies psychological principles to a workplace setting. In other words, I/O psychologists study how human behavior impacts work and how work affects people.
 
This subfield dates back to the early 20th century, when American psychologists began to apply psychological principles to the workplace.

• Walter Dill Scott (1869–1955), an American psychologist, is credited with applying these principles to marketing, management, advertising, and employee selection.
• Millicent Pond (1889–?), an American employment researcher, studied employee selection in relation to job performance and was among the first to develop pre-selection employment selection tools.
• Elton Mayo (1880–1949), an Australian psychologist, focused on organizational dynamics. His work led to the discovery of the Hawthorne effect, the phenomenon in which employees are more productive when they are observed.
• Kurt Lewin (1890–1947), a German-American psychologist, coined the term group dynamics and explored group relations in workplace settings.
• Frederick Taylor (1856–1915), an American mechanical engineer, focused on design aspects of the workplace, which led to the subfield of human-factor psychology.
• Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972), an American psychologist, applied psychological principles to employee fatigue and time management stress.

To review, see Industrial-Organizational Psychology, I/O Psychology, and More on I/O Psychology.
 

10b. Differentiate between industrial and organizational psychology and the real-life applications of each

• How does industrial psychology differ from organizational psychology?
• What types of tasks do industrial vs. organizational psychologists undertake?

We can break the subfield of I/O psychology down into industrial and organizational psychology (note that these terms are not interchangeable).
 
Industrial psychology focuses on job analysis, such as describing and measuring a task or a job. Industrial psychologists are often tasked with writing job requirements, interviewing and hiring employees, training new employees, evaluating performance, and assuring an organization abides by equality laws.
 
Organizational psychology is concerned with the social aspects of work life, such as ensuring job satisfaction, examining the effectiveness of different leadership or management styles, exploring work-family balance options, and conducting diversity training.
 
To review, read I/O Psychology.
 

10c. Explain how human-factors psychology relates to industrial/organizational psychology

• What is human-factors psychology? How does it relate to I/O psychology?
• What type of work does a human-factors psychologist do?

Human-factors psychology is a third specialization within the realm of I/O psychology. This subfield has its roots in design and engineering and is concerned with how employees interact with workplace tools and environments.
 
For example, human-factors psychologists might redesign an office space to allow more space for interaction or more room for quiet, focused activities. Human-factors psychologists also focus on workplace safety, such as by developing checklists or similar procedures.
 
To review, read Human Factors Psychology and Workplace Design.
 

Unit 10 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• group dynamics
• Hawthorne effect
• human-factors psychology
• industrial/organizational psychology
• industrial psychology
• organizational psychology

Unit 11: Health and Stress Psychology

11a. Describe stress, the stress process, and the physiological basis of stress

• What is stress?
• What's the difference between primary and secondary appraisal?
• How can stress manifest itself?

The field of health psychology studies our well-being, how we handle stress, and how stressful experiences impact our daily lives and health. Stress is not an easy concept to define because people experience and respond to it differently. Most researchers agree we should focus on how we respond to stressful situations to define stress (rather than stimulus-based definitions).
 
Consequently, an acceptable definition of stress is a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being. We refer to these events as stressors.
 
Our response to stress determines how it affects us. It is important to distinguish between primary and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal refers to our judgment about the degree of harm or threat a particular stressor has on us. For example, our fear that we may receive a poor grade may make us feel threatened when report cards are about to be distributed.
 
Our perception of a threat leads to secondary appraisal, which refers to our judgment on how we cope or respond to the stressor. We might not feel as stressed or threatened by the stressor if we decide we can take action. For example, we may decide to discuss the poor grade we received with our teacher since they may provide an opportunity to do extra work so we can earn a better grade.
 
Stress can manifest itself through a variety of symptoms and responses, which can be physiological (elevated heartbeat, sweating, gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (having trouble concentrating), or behavioral (engaging in harmful behaviors to alleviate the stressor).
 
To review, see What Is Stress?, Stress and Stressors, The Healthy Life, and More on Stressors.
 

11b. Explain the research on stress done by Walter Cannon and Hans Selye and how it applies to real-world situations

• What contributions did Walter Cannon and Hans Selye make to health psychology?
• What are some differences and similarities in their work?

Walter Cannon (1871–1945), an American physiologist, was among the first to explore stress and how our bodies respond to stressful events. He described the fight or flight response to stress which suggests our body quickly arouses the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system when we confront a stressful event. Our pupils dilate, our breathing quickens, we begin to sweat, our heart rate increases, and our muscles tense or tremble. These physiological responses prepare us to fight or flee from a stressful event.
 
Hans Selye (1907–1982), a Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist, studied how rats responded to stress. He studied what he called the General Adaptation Syndrome, our body's physiological response to stress. He explained that our bodies react in three stages when we confront a stressful event: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion.
 
Selye agreed with Cannon that our initial reaction (alarm reaction) is fight or flight. Our body provides us with energy to fight or escape the stressor. As the stressor continues, our bodies move on to a stage of resistance, when the initial shock wears off and our bodies slowly adapt to the stressor but remain on high alert. During this stage, our body is still ready to respond, but with less intensity than in the previous stage. When the stressor continues over a longer period of time, we move to a stage of exhaustion when we can no longer adapt to the stressor and our body becomes weakened and more susceptible to illness.
 
To review, read Stress and Stressors.
 

11c. Explain how stress affects bodily functioning and illness

• What is the relationship between stress and health? Which bodily systems can be affected by stress?
• What is the relationship between Type A & B personalities and the development of cardiovascular disease?

When we are stressed, our bodies release the stress hormone cortisol, which gives us extra energy to fight or flee. We can handle short spurts of Cortisol, but the extended release of this hormone can cause negative effects. Research links increased Cortisol levels to a decline in our immune systems and our ability to fight diseases.
 
Research shows that chronic or persistent stress can have harmful effects on our bodies and manifest itself in the form of psychophysiological problems. Stress creates the following negative effects on our bodily systems:

• Cardiovascular – hypertension, heart disease
• Gastrointestinal – problems with bowel movements
• Respiratory – asthma, allergies
• Musculoskeletal – pains, headaches
• Skin – acne, eczema

The American cardiologists Meyer Friedman (1910–2001) and Ray Rosenman (1920–1913) linked personality types to chronic stress and cardiovascular disease. They found people who display a Type A personality (workaholic, rushed, career-focused, and confrontational) are more likely to develop heart disease than patients with a Type B personality who are more relaxed and laid-back.
 
To review, see Stress and Illness, Physical Effects of Stress, and Stress Management.
 

11d. Explain how coping mechanisms help to regulate stress

• What is the difference between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping?
• What types of stress reduction techniques can help alleviate stress?

In addition to studying different types of stress, health psychologists also analyze how we use coping mechanisms to deal with stress. They differentiate two different styles of coping. Problem-focused coping refers to identifying the problem and doing something about it to make it less stressful (action-focused). Emotion-focused coping refers to changing the negative emotions attached to the stressor.
 
For example, if you suddenly lose your job, you may begin looking for a new job right away, update your resume (problem-focused), and recognize you have an opportunity to pursue another career interest (emotion-focused). How we cope with stress often depends on our belief about how much control we have during a stressful situation.
 
Research finds that social support can help us cope with stress. Stress reduction techniques are also helpful. Examples include the relaxation stress response technique, which combines relaxation and meditation, or biofeedback, which uses an electronic apparatus to measure and provide feedback on visual and auditory signals.
 
To review, see Regulation of Stress and Behavioral Effects of Stress.
 

11e. Explain the subfield of positive psychology and the importance of happiness

• Who developed the field of positive psychology? What does it focus on?
• What is happiness?

Martin Seligman (1942– ) recently founded the field of positive psychology when he studied learned helplessness. These psychologists focus on human strengths and identify factors in life that make us feel happy and fulfilled. Some equate the field of positive psychology with the study of happiness.
 
While there are many definitions of happiness, some researchers believe it consists of three elements:

1. The pleasant life – the attainment of daily pleasures;
2. The good life – identifying specific skills that make us happy; and
3. The meaningful life – deriving a sense of fulfillment or meaning from our activities.

Researchers discovered a strong correlation between happiness and age – older people tend to be happier. We also associate having family, friends, education, and employment with happiness.
 
To review, see The Pursuit of Happiness and Positive Psychology.
 

Unit 11 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• coping mechanism
• cortisol
• fight or flight
• General Adaptation Syndrome
• Hans Selye
• health psychology
• learned helplessness
• positive psychology
• primary appraisal
• psychophysiological problems
• secondary appraisal
• stress
• Type A personality
• Type B personality
• Walter Cannon