SOC101 Study Guide

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Study Guide Structure

In this study guide, the sections in each unit (1a., 1b., etc.) are the learning outcomes of that unit. 

Beneath each learning outcome are:

• questions for you to answer independently;
• a brief summary of the learning outcome topic; and
• and resources related to the learning outcome. 

At the end of each unit, there is also a list of suggested vocabulary words.

How to Use this Study Guide

1. Review the entire course by reading the learning outcome summaries and suggested resources.
2. Test your understanding of the course information by answering questions related to each unit learning outcome and defining and memorizing the vocabulary words at the end of each unit.

By clicking on the gear button on the top right of the screen, you can print the study guide. Then you can make notes, highlight, and underline as you work.

Through reviewing and completing the study guide, you should gain a deeper understanding of each learning outcome in the course and be better prepared for the final exam!

Unit 1: What is Sociology?

1a. Define sociology

• What is the definition of sociology?
• How does sociology differ from other disciplines?
• What are some key concepts associated with sociology?

Sociology is the scientific study of society, human behavior, and the various interactions that shape our lives. It allows us to analyze social phenomena, institutions, and patterns to better understand how society functions and evolves over time.

Sociology differs from other disciplines due to its distinct focus on social structures, interactions, and group dynamics. While disciplines like psychology delve into individual behaviors and thoughts, and economics examines financial systems, sociology encompasses a broader scope by examining how societies function as a whole. Sociology bridges the gap between individual experiences and the broader social context, considering how societal factors impact personal lives.

Some key concepts associated with sociology you should review include society, social interaction, and sociological imagination.

To review, see:

• Introduction to Sociology
• Sociology
• What Is Sociology?
• The Wisdom of Sociology
• Using Your Sociological Imagination

1b. Explain the benefit of using sociological imagination

• What is sociological imagination, and why is it important?
• How does sociological imagination differ from a personal perspective?
• How can sociological imagination enhance our understanding of society?

The sociological imagination is a key tool for understanding the interplay between personal experiences and broader societal structures. It refers to our ability to connect personal experiences with broader societal issues. For example, if we lost our jobs in the tech industry, we could examine if it is connected with the virtual migration of jobs in the new information economy to India.

Sociological imagination differs from a personal perspective because it encourages us to see how historical, cultural, and structural forces shape individual lives. For example, the groups we belong to, such as our social class, race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation, have a profound influence on our opportunities and constraints.

Sociological imagination enhances our understanding of society by bridging personal experiences with broader societal contexts. It allows us to see beyond individual circumstances and recognize how social forces shape our lives. By applying sociological imagination, we can connect personal struggles to larger societal issues, revealing patterns and structures that influence our behaviors, beliefs, and opportunities. This perspective helps us question the taken-for-granted and uncover hidden inequalities, providing a deeper understanding of how society operates and how change can occur. Ultimately, sociological imagination encourages critical thinking and empowers individuals to engage with their surroundings, fostering a more informed and active citizenship.

To review, see:

• Sociology
• The Wisdom of Sociology
• Using Your Sociological Imagination

1c. Describe different types of societies

• What are the key characteristics that distinguish different types of societies?
• How do economic systems and technological advancements impact societal classifications?
• What are examples of the various types of societies?

Sociologists explore the diversity of human societies by putting them into different categories based on their economic, technological, and cultural attributes. Sociologists have categorized three key types of societies: preindustrial societies (hunter-gatherer, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, feudal), industrial societies, and postindustrial societies (also called information and digital).

Preindustrial societies, such as hunter-gatherers and agricultural societies, rely on basic tools and manual labor. Industrial societies, driven by the Industrial Revolution, are characterized by mechanized production and urbanization. Postindustrial societies, known as information or digital societies, emphasize knowledge, services, and technology.

Economic systems and technological advancements have a profound impact on societal classifications. They influence how resources are produced, distributed, and utilized, shaping social structures, roles, and interactions. For instance, the shift from agrarian to industrial societies significantly changed labor, urbanization, and social stratification. Understanding the characteristics and classifications of different societies helps us grasp the complexities of human social organization and how economic and technological forces drive societal evolution.

Examples of preindustrial societies include Indigenous communities that rely on hunting and gathering or pastoralism. Agricultural societies encompass civilizations such as colonial America. Industrial societies emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries in the United Kingdom and the United States with the rise of the factory system. Postindustrial societies include nations with advanced technological infrastructure.

To review, see Social Constructions of Reality and Types of Societies.

1d. Identify theories and concepts from classical and contemporary sociological theories

• What distinguishes classical sociological theories from contemporary ones?
• Name some prominent figures in both classical and contemporary sociological theories.
• How have societal perspectives evolved over time, and what insights can we gain from these theories?

There is a rich history of sociological theories, including the foundational ideas proposed by classical and contemporary thinkers. By identifying these theories and concepts, we gain insight into the evolution of sociological thinking and how it can impact the way we see society today. Notice the similarities and differences in the central perspectives.

These views on society have evolved significantly over time due to changing historical, cultural, and intellectual contexts. Early classical sociological theories, such as those by Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, laid the groundwork for understanding society through macro-level analyses of social institutions and structures. Their work emphasized concepts such as social class, power, and social integration. Contemporary sociological theories have since emerged to address the complexities of modern societies, including globalization, technology, and identity. These theories study micro-level interactions, individual agency, and the intersectionality of various identities. They also examine the world from a feminist perspective and recognize those from minority communities.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857), a French philosopher, founded the concept of positivism, which articulated that sociology follows the principles of the natural sciences. Many call Comte "the father of sociology."

Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an English sociologist, translated Comte's work and was one of the early influential feminists. She advocated for equal education and pay for men and women and was an early 'abolitionist.

Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German philosopher, created the concept of conflict theory during the 1800s in response to the stark inequities he witnessed during the Industrial Revolution. In his most famous work, The Communist Manifesto, he described a dictatorial society in which the ruling and upper classes (the bourgeoisie) controlled the members of the working classes (the proletariat). He described the working class' increasing feelings of alienation toward the products of their labor and said the proletariat should replace "false consciousness" with "class consciousness." Only revolution could improve this situation.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), an English philosopher, applied Darwin's evolutionary theory to study society, which he called Social Darwinism. Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" and applied it to societal inequality.

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French sociologist, pioneered the functionalist approach, which examines how different parts of society function to keep the society healthy and balanced. Durkheim viewed society as a total, integrated system, which was greater than the sum of its parts. He was interested in how societies maintain social integration after modern economic relations replaced traditional bonds. His quest to understand what holds society together during times of social change contributed to the structural functionalism theory.

Georg Simmel (1858–1918), a German sociologist, rejected simple materialism and interactionism. He believed society comprises complex interactions that create more than the sum of its parts. His work was influential in philosophy and sociology.

Max Weber (1864–1920), a German sociologist, was an anti-positivist who believed ideas fuel modern society. His work was influential in economics and religion. Pay attention to his most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Symbolic interactionism theory is based on Weber's early ideas. His theory emphasizes the individual's viewpoint and how it relates to society. For Weber, the culmination of industrialization and rationalization creates an "iron cage" in which institutions and bureaucracy trap the individual. This leads to "disenchantment of the world," which is how Weber describes the final condition of humanity.

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), an American philosopher and social theorist, was an early thinker in the symbolic interaction approach. He was interested in how we use symbols to make meanings. Pay attention to his explanation of the "I" (internal self) and the "me" (social or external self).

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963), an American sociologist, was the first Black man to earn a doctorate at Harvard University. He wrote about the double consciousness of being Black in America. He founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and had a tremendous influence on Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the American civil rights movement.

To review, see:

• History of Sociology
• Auguste Comte
• Karl Marx
• Herbert Spencer
• Émile Durkheim
• Max Weber
• Harriet Martineau
• W.E.B. Du Bois
• George Herbert Mead
• Theoretical Perspectives on Society
• Four Critical Perspectives
• Functionalism
• Conflict Theory
• Alienation
• Symbolic Interactionism

1e. Compare the theoretical perspectives on society: functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionism

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of society?
• What are the key differences between these theoretical perspectives?
• How can a comprehensive understanding of these perspectives enhance our analysis of societal issues?

The three major theoretical perspectives – functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism – offer unique lenses through which to view society. Comparing these perspectives deepens our understanding of the dynamics shaping human interactions. Each theory provides a different lens to examine society. Throughout this course, pay attention to the key terms associated with each theory and their central criticisms.

Functionalism views society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts, each serving specific functions to maintain social stability and equilibrium. Functionalism emphasizes the roles of social institutions, norms, and shared values in contributing to the overall harmony of society. Functionalism suggests that when each part fulfills its intended function, society functions smoothly, and change is gradual. It provides insights into how various aspects of society work together to ensure its functioning and how disruptions in one area can affect the entire system.

Conflict theory focuses on the power struggles, inequalities, and conflicts that exist within society. It argues that society is characterized by competing interests and resources, leading to tensions between different social groups. Conflict theorists analyze how dominant groups maintain their power and how marginalized groups challenge and resist this power dynamic. This perspective sheds light on how inequalities and social injustices drive social change and the role of social movements in challenging the status quo.

Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the significance of individual interactions and the meanings assigned to symbols, gestures, and language. It suggests that individuals construct their understanding of reality through social interactions and develop shared meanings for symbols. This perspective focuses on how individuals interpret and respond to symbols in their interactions, contributing to forming identities and social norms. Symbolic interactionism highlights the role of subjective experiences, self-concept, and the negotiation of meanings in shaping human behavior and social dynamics.

To review, see:

• Karl Marx
• Herbert Spencer
• Georg Simmel
• Émile Durkheim
• Max Weber
• Harriet Martineau
• W.E.B. Du Bois
• George Herbert Mead
• Theoretical Perspectives on Society
• Four Critical Perspectives
• Functionalism
• Conflict Theory
• Alienation
• Symbolic Interactionism

Unit 1 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• agricultural societies
• alienation
• August Comte
• conflict theory
• economic system
• Émile Durkheim
• feudal societies
• functionalism
• Georg Simmel
• George Herbert Mead
• Harriet Martineau
• Herbert Spencer
• horticultural societies
• hunter-gatherer societies
• internal self
• industrial societies
• Karl Marx
• Max Weber
• external self
• pastoral societies
• positivism
• postindustrial societies
• preindustrial societies
• social construction of reality
• society
• sociological imagination
• sociology
• Structural functionalism
• symbolic interactionism
• W.E.B. Du Bois

Unit 2: Sociological Research

2a. Discuss the six steps of the scientific method

• What are the six steps of the scientific method in sociological research?
• How do researchers generate hypotheses and research questions?
• What is the importance of data collection and analysis in the scientific method?

The scientific method is the systematic approach sociologists and other scientists use in their research. Understanding each step equips us with the tools to investigate and analyze social phenomena. The six steps of the scientific method in sociological research are:

1. Researchers identify a topic they want to study.
2. They review existing knowledge to see what is already known.
3. They formulate a research question or hypothesis, which is like a guess about what they expect to find.
4. They collect data through surveys, observations, or other methods.
5. With data in hand, they analyze it to see if their hypothesis is supported or not.
6. They draw conclusions and share their findings with others. This method helps ensure that sociological research is well-organized, unbiased, and evidence-based.

When researchers begin a research study, they often start with a curious question or a hunch about something they want to explore. They then turn this idea into a hypothesis, which is like a prediction about what they expect to find in their research. For example, if they are curious about how social media affects friendships, they may hypothesize that people who use social media have more friends. They also create research questions, which are inquiries that guide their investigation. These questions help researchers focus on specific aspects of their topic. By generating hypotheses and research questions, researchers set clear directions for their studies and give themselves goals to work toward.

Data collection and analysis are integral to the scientific method because they provide evidence to support or reject hypotheses. Data collection involves gathering information from surveys, interviews, observations, or other methods. This information is like the puzzle pieces researchers use to understand the bigger picture. Once they have enough data, they analyze it to observe patterns and trends. This analysis helps researchers draw conclusions about their hypotheses. For example, if they find that people who use social media have fewer close friendships, they may conclude that there is a relationship between social media use and friendships. Data collection and analysis help make sociological research accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

To review, see Approaches to Sociological Research and Scientific Method.

2b. Explain how sociology uses qualitative and quantitative data collection methods

• What are qualitative and quantitative data collection methods in sociology?
• How do these methods differ in terms of data gathering and analysis?
• Can you think of examples of when each method would be more suitable in sociological research?

Sociological research employs various data collection methods. Understanding the differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches helps you choose the most appropriate method for different research questions. In sociology, researchers use two main types of data collection methods: qualitative and quantitative.

• Qualitative methods focus on understanding the richness and depth of human experiences. Researchers gather detailed information through methods such as interviews, focus groups, or participant observations. This approach lets them explore people's thoughts, feelings, and motivations.
  
  
• Quantitative methods involve collecting numerical data to find patterns and correlations. Surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis are common quantitative methods. These methods provide researchers with measurable data that can be analyzed mathematically. Qualitative methods give insights into the "how" and "why" of social phenomena, while quantitative methods focus on the "what" and "how much."

Notice the advantages and disadvantages of each data collection method.

Qualitative methods involve in-depth participant interactions, allowing researchers to gather rich and nuanced information. They often ask open-ended questions and make detailed observations to capture participants' perspectives. Qualitative data analysis involves identifying themes, patterns, and meanings in the collected information.

Qualitative methods are well-suited for exploring complex human experiences and understanding the nuances of behaviors and emotions. For instance, when researching the impact of a new educational approach on students' learning experiences, qualitative methods could help uncover the underlying motivations and challenges students face.

Quantitative methods involve larger samples and structured surveys or experiments. Researchers gather numerical data that can be analyzed statistically. This analysis often aims to identify relationships and trends between variables. While qualitative methods offer a deeper understanding of individual experiences, quantitative methods provide broader insights into general trends and patterns within a larger population.

Quantitative methods are ideal for studying large groups and measuring numerical relationships. For example, when examining the relationship between socioeconomic status and voting patterns across a country, quantitative methods can provide statistical evidence of correlations. The choice between these methods depends on the research goals, the depth of understanding needed, and the types of questions being addressed.

To review, see Research Methods.

2c. Explain ethical concerns in sociological research

• What are some common ethical concerns in sociological research?
• How do researchers ensure the protection and privacy of their participants?
• What is the importance of informed consent and avoiding harm in research?

Ethical concerns are critical in sociological research. They revolve around the well-being and rights of participants. One concern is confidentiality, where researchers must ensure that participants' identities and responses are kept private. Informed consent is another concern, requiring researchers to explain the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks to participants before they agree to participate. Avoiding harm is essential, as researchers must prevent physical, emotional, or psychological harm to participants. Issues related to deception, where participants are unaware of the true purpose of the study, and the representation of marginalized groups with respect and accuracy are additional ethical considerations.

Researchers take various steps to protect participants' well-being and privacy. They maintain confidentiality by removing any identifying information from collected data and presenting results in a way that prevents individual identification. Informed consent is obtained by clearly explaining the study's goals, procedures, potential risks, and participants' rights. Researchers provide opportunities for participants to ask questions and make informed decisions about participation. They also consider the principle of voluntary participation, ensuring participants can withdraw from the study at any time without consequences. To protect vulnerable populations, such as children or marginalized groups, researchers take extra precautions and seek permission from appropriate authorities.

Informed consent ensures participants are fully aware of what they are getting into and are empowered to make informed choices about their involvement with a voluntary, informed agreement. Avoiding harm is equally critical, as researchers must prevent any physical, psychological, or emotional harm that participants may experience due to the research. These principles uphold the dignity and safety of participants. By adhering to these principles, researchers demonstrate ethical responsibility and contribute to the credibility and integrity of sociological research. Pay attention to the examples of ethical violations in academic research in sociology.

To review, see Ethical Concerns and Why Is Ethics in Research Important?.

Unit 2 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• analysis
• avoiding harm
• confidentiality
• data collection
• deception
• ethical concerns
• hypothesis
• informed consent
• interview
• observation
• qualitative data collection
• quantitative data collection
• representation of marginalized groups
• research question
• scientific method
• survey
• variables

Unit 3: Culture

3a. Define culture

• How is culture defined in sociology?
• What are the key components of culture?
• What are the role of symbols, language, and norms in shaping culture?

Culture in sociology refers to the complex system of shared beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and symbols that shape how members of a society interact and view the world. It includes material aspects, such as objects and technology, and nonmaterial aspects, such as ideas and customs. Culture offers a framework that shapes how individuals learn and interpret their surroundings, guiding their actions and interactions within their social environment.

Culture includes several key components that work together to create a society's distinct way of life. These components include symbols, which are objects or gestures that carry shared meanings; language, which allows communication and the transmission of culture across generations; norms, which are shared rules and expectations that guide behavior; values, which are culturally defined standards of what is desirable or undesirable; and beliefs, which are ideas held by a society that help shape perceptions of reality.

Symbols, language, and norms are integral to shaping and transmitting culture. Symbols represent shared meanings that hold cultural significance, allowing individuals to communicate complex ideas and concepts. Language, as a symbolic system, enables the transmission of cultural knowledge, values, and traditions from one generation to the next. Norms provide guidelines for behavior, indicating what is socially acceptable and appropriate. They vary from society to society and help maintain order and cohesion. Together, these elements create a shared reality and give people a sense of identity and belonging within their culture. Symbols, language, and norms foster cultural continuity and change, enabling societies to adapt and evolve over time.

To review, see:

• What Is Culture?
• Society and Culture
• Elements of Culture
• High, Low, Pop, Sub, and Counter-Culture
• What Is Popular Culture?

3b. Compare the cultural concepts of ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, nonmaterial culture, and types of cultural groups

• What is ethnocentrism?
• How does cultural relativism challenge ethnocentrism?
• What is the difference between material and nonmaterial culture?
• What are the differences between each type of cultural group?

Cultural concepts provide insights into the ways societies function and interact. Ethnocentrism is when a person or a group judges another culture based on their own cultural standards. It is like thinking your way of doing things is the best or only right way, and everything else is strange or wrong. People with ethnocentric attitudes may not fully understand or appreciate other cultures because they are stuck in their own cultural bubbles.

Cultural relativism is a different way of looking at things. It is about trying to understand and respect other cultures on their own terms. Instead of saying, "My way is the only way", cultural relativism says, "Let's try to understand why others do things differently". It challenges ethnocentrism by reminding us that there are many ways to live and think and that each culture has its own reasons for doing things the way they do. It is like removing cultural blinders and trying to see the world from different perspectives.

There are several types of cultural groups. First, there is the dominant culture – the mainstream way most people in a society do things. Subcultures are smaller groups within a society with their own special way of doing things. An example is a subculture of gamers that shares a passion for video games. Counterculture is when a group goes against the dominant culture. Think of the hippies in the 1960s – they concentrated on promoting peace and love, a focus that was completely different from the mainstream purpose. In a nutshell, cultural groups come in different sizes and flavors. They all add their own special spices to the cultural mix.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Culture.

3c. Apply theoretical perspectives to cultural analysis

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach study culture?
• What insights can each theoretical perspective offer in understanding cultural phenomena?
• Can you think of examples of cultural aspects that can be analyzed using these perspectives?

Cultural analysis offers a lens through which we can examine society. How do the three major theoretical perspectives – functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism – contribute to our understanding of culture?

Functionalism highlights culture's role in promoting social cohesion and stability, showcasing how cultural norms and values maintain order. Conflict theory, on the other hand, emphasizes power dynamics and inequalities in cultural systems, shedding light on how dominant groups use culture to reinforce their status and marginalize others. Symbolic interactionism explores micro-level interactions and symbolic meanings that shape individual cultural experiences.

Each theoretical perspective offers a unique lens. Functionalism helps us see how different parts of culture work together to keep society running smoothly. It is like examining how traditions and norms help everyone know what to do and create order. Conflict theory points out the power struggles and inequalities in culture. It helps us see how certain groups control cultural instruments, such as the media, and shape our thinking. Symbolic interactionism zooms in our interactions with cultural symbols, like how we use language or gestures. It is like looking at how everyday things contribute to the bigger cultural picture.

Here are some examples of how each perspective would examine culture. Functionalism helps us understand how rituals, like holidays, bring people together and create a sense of unity. Conflict theory can show us how the media can promote certain cultural values while ignoring others, shaping how we see the world. Symbolic interactionism explores how people from different cultures communicate and interpret symbols, like handshakes or eye contact, differently. It is like putting on different glasses to see culture from different angles. Whether it is seeing how culture glues society together, finding power struggles within it, or exploring how individuals make meaning, these perspectives help us see cultural phenomena in new and interesting ways.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Culture.

Unit 3 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• belief
• counterculture
• cultural analysis
• cultural group
• cultural relativism
• culture
• dominant culture
• ethnocentrism
• language
• material culture
• nonmaterial culture
• norm
• subculture
• symbol
• value

Unit 4: Socialization, Groups, and Social Control

4a. Define elements of socialization

• What are the key elements of socialization?
• How does the process of socialization influence individual identity?
• Can you think of examples of primary and secondary agents of socialization?

Socialization is a lifelong process that shapes an individual's understanding of their roles, identities, and societal behaviors. Understanding the agents of socialization, including family, peers, media, and education, sheds light on how individuals become active participants in their communities.

Socialization is like a sculptor chiseling our sense of self. From the day we are born, we start absorbing the ways of our surroundings. Our family, friends, school, and others all have a say in shaping our thoughts, beliefs, and actions. They collectively contribute to our identity and where we fit in. For example, if you grow up in a culture that highly values hard work and achievement, you may naturally adopt those values and see yourself as driven and goal-oriented. Socialization is more than just learning rules; it is about discovering who we are in the grand scheme of things.

Primary agents lay the foundation, and secondary agents add layers that contribute to your unique identity. Through this exploration, we learn how societies transmit cultural norms and expectations to the next generation.

By examining primary and secondary agents of socialization, we recognize the profound impact of these influences on our self-concept, values, and worldview. Your family is a primary agent in socialization. They first teach you the ropes, such as language, basic manners, and moral values. As you grow, you meet other influential characters. Schools adopt the role of secondary agents of socialization. Educators teach you how to conduct yourself in a classroom, respect schedules, and collaborate with classmates. Then there are peers – the friends you hang out with. They introduce you to the art of fitting in, being trendy, and perhaps questioning what your family taught you. Meanwhile, the media – social media, TV shows, movies – expose you to fresh perspectives and diverse ways of thinking.

To review, see:

• Why Socialization Matters
• Agents of Socialization
• More on Agents of Socialization
• Socialization throughout Life

4b. Compare psychological and sociological theories of self-development

• How do psychological and sociological theories explain the development of the self?
• What are the key differences between these perspectives?
• Can you think of examples of how social interactions influence self-concept?

Understanding the development of self-concept is central to sociology. Here, we explore psychological and sociological theories that shed light on self-development.

The critical difference is their focus. Psychological theories focus on internal mental processes and individual experiences as the driving force behind self-development. They discuss personal growth, emotions, and self-esteem. Sociological theories highlight external factors – society, culture, and the people around us. They emphasize how our self-concept is influenced by how others see and treat us. While one perspective looks within, the other looks at our connections with the world around us.

Here are some examples of how social interactions influence self-concept. Let's say you are at a party. When others laugh at our jokes and engage with us, our self-esteem is strengthened, and we feel valued – this is sociological. But if you feel confident because you believe you are naturally funny and witty – that is psychological. Now, think about a classroom discussion. If you are praised for your insights, you may believe you are intelligent and knowledgeable. Your social interactions influence you. But if you already believe in your intellectual capabilities, that is coming from your own self-concept. Social interactions and personal beliefs play a part in shaping how we see ourselves. It is a dance between the way others see us and the way we see ourselves.

To review, see Theories of Self-Development.

4c. Compare nature vs. nurture agents of socialization and over the life course

• How does the nature vs. nurture debate apply to socialization?
• What are the key agents of socialization across different life stages?
• How would you explain the concept of the life course perspective and its relevance to socialization?

The nature vs. nurture debate takes center stage in the context of socialization. Here, we explore the dynamic interplay between innate traits (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) as they shape our identities and behaviors.

Examining the agents of socialization across various life stages, from childhood to adulthood, provides insight into our understanding of self and society. Socialization is a lifelong journey. Different agents play a role during each stage. When we are babies, family is the main show – they teach us language and basic norms. As we grow, schools and peers step in – they shape our social skills and values. Later, the media influences us, along with mentors or role models who guide us from the workplace and our community.

The life course perspective examines our lives as journeys with different chapters and milestones. How do our experiences in one stage of life affect the next? Regarding socialization, we realize that what we learn and experience in one phase of life – say childhood – affects how we socialize and adapt during the next phase – adulthood. We connect the dots between our past, present, and future and how the socialization journey shapes who we become. Our lives are a series of interconnected stories, and the agents of socialization help write each chapter.

To review, see:

• Why Socialization Matters
• Genes and the Environment
• Agents of Socialization
• More on Agents of Socialization
• Socialization throughout Life

4d. Define types of groups and how groups impact individual behavior

• What are the different types of groups in sociological terms?
• How do groups influence individual behavior and identity?
• Can you think of examples of how groups affect decision-making and conformity?

In sociology, groups come in various forms. Primary groups are small and close-knit, such as our family and tight-knit friends. Secondary groups are larger and more formal, such as our classmates and coworkers. In-groups are ones we are a part of and identify with, such as your soccer team. Out-groups are ones we are not part of and may even feel a bit different from. Reference groups are those we compare ourselves to, such as our role models. All of these types of groups shape our sense of belonging and who we think we are.

Groups can drive how we behave and who we are. Being part of a group can make us feel like we belong and give us a sense of identity. Groups set norms – unwritten rules everyone follows. For example, if your group values punctuality, you are also more likely to be on time. Groups also influence our opinions and choices. If your friends love a certain type of music, you may start to like it too. Groups have the power to shape our behaviors and mold our identities.

Imagine you are in a study group, and everyone leans toward one answer for a tough question. Even if you are not totally convinced, you may say you agree to fit in – this is conformity. Consider a group project where you must decide on a topic. If one person suggests an idea, others may agree to avoid conflict – this is called groupthink. On the other hand, let's say you are in a team, and you are the only person who disagrees with a plan. You may feel pressured to go along to keep the peace – this is called normative conformity. Whether you are agreeing to keep the harmony or just to be part of the gang, groups often influence our choices. Pay attention to more extreme examples of the power of groups and authority figures in this section with the Stanford Prison Experiment.

To review, see:

• Types of Group
• Group Size and Structure
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Psychology of War and Peace

4e. Define bureaucracies and the concept of McDonaldization

• What are bureaucracies, and how do they function in organizations?
• Explain the concept of McDonaldization and its implications for modern societies.
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the effects of bureaucratization and McDonaldization on individuals and society?

Bureaucracies are structured systems in organizations that aim to make things run smoothly. They have clear hierarchies – bosses, managers, and employees – and follow strict rules and procedures. Bureaucracies help manage tasks efficiently and ensure everyone knows their roles. They are like the gears that keep a machine turning. However, they can be rigid and adapt slowly, leading to frustrations and missed opportunities.

McDonaldization models the principles of the fast food industry – efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control, spread into other areas of society. Think about how everything is becoming more standardized and streamlined in education, work, and healthcare. This idea stresses convenience but can also lead to a loss of uniqueness and depth. This trend can make life faster and more efficient, but it can sacrifice personal touch and creativity.

From a functionalist perspective, bureaucracies ensure order and efficiency in organizations, like gears in a well-oiled machine. However, a conflict theorist would highlight how bureaucracies can lead to power imbalances and inequality since those higher in the hierarchy have more control. When it comes to McDonaldization, a functionalist would see it as improving efficiency and convenience, while a symbolic interactionist would examine how it changes people's behaviors and interactions. We can explore the same phenomena through different lenses, uncovering various layers of its impact on individuals and society.

To review, see Formal Organizations and McDonaldization.

4f. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on deviance and the nature of deviant behavior

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism explain deviance?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the causes and consequences of deviant behavior?
• Can you think of examples of how societal reactions to deviance vary based on these perspectives?

Functionalism sees deviance as a natural part of society. Deviance is like a warning sign that something's wrong and needs fixing. It also helps define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. Conflict theorists believe deviance results from power struggles and inequality. Those with power define what is deviant as a way to maintain control. Symbolic interactionism looks at how deviance is socially constructed through interactions. We learn what is right and wrong from those around us.

From a functionalist view, deviance can strengthen social bonds as people unite against it. Conflict theory reveals how those in power label behaviors as deviant to protect their interests. For symbolic interactionism, deviance is a way to negotiate identity and status in society. People break the rules to gain attention and feel special.

Imagine someone skipping school. A functionalist may see this as a sign of a problem needing attention – to address issues within the education system. A conflict theorist may suggest the school's strict rules and power dynamics cause students to rebel. A symbolic interactionist may consider how this behavior affects the person's self-concept and interactions with peers. Different perspectives explain why people break the rules and how society reacts.

To review, see:

• Deviance and Control
• Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime
• Labeling Theory
• The Psychology of Criminal Behavior
• Perspectives on Deviance

4g. Define crime typologies and how race impacts the criminal justice process

• What are crime typologies, and how do they categorize different types of crimes?
• How does race impact the criminal justice process, from arrest to sentencing?
• How do disparities in the criminal justice system reflect broader societal inequalities?

Crime typologies resemble organized cheat sheets for different types of crimes. They help us understand crimes by sorting them into categories based on characteristics such as motivation, method, and impact. For example, we see violent crimes such as assault and robbery, property crimes such as theft and burglary, and white-collar crimes involving fraud and embezzlement. These typologies present the different flavors of wrongdoing.

Race casts a shadow on the criminal justice process. Studies show that people of color, especially Black individuals, are more likely to be targeted and arrested than White individuals, even for similar offenses. Then, during trials and sentencing, racial biases that have often become systemic to the criminal justice system can influence judgments. It is a double whammy – unfair treatment from the get-go with disparities during the punishment phase.

The criminal justice system reflects the broader society. If we dig deeper, we find that racial disparities mirror larger social inequalities. Factors such as poverty, lack of access to quality education, and systemic racism explain why certain groups are disproportionately represented in crime statistics. The inequalities in the criminal justice system are symptoms of deeper-rooted societal issues we must address.

Unit 4 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• bureaucracy
• conformity
• criminal justice process
• crime typology
• deviance
• groupthink
• in-group
• labeling theory
• life course perspective
• McDonaldization
• nature
• nurture
• out-group
• primary agent of socialization
• primary group
• property crime
• psychological theory
• racial disparity
• reference group
• secondary agent of socialization
• secondary group
• self-development
• socialization
• sociological theory
• Stanford Prison Experiment
• violent crime
• white collar crime

Unit 5: Social Stratification

5a. Define local and global stratification

• What is social stratification, and how does it manifest locally and globally?
• How does social inequality impact individuals and societies?
• Can you think of examples of social hierarchies in both local and global contexts?

Social stratification ranks individuals on a scale according to their social worth. In most societies, people are divided according to power, money, and resources. Locally, we see economic classes, such as rich, middle-class, and poor. Global stratification divides wealthy and poor countries. This hierarchy affects opportunities, education, and life chances.

When some people have more than others, it can lead to conflicts and tensions. Individuals who face inequality often lack access to the same opportunities as those from the dominant group. This unequal distribution of resources can slow down progress since members of the population are unable to excel because they do not have equal access to the same resources or opportunities.

For a local example, think about the different positions doctors and janitors have on the social ladder. Consider the opportunities they can give their children. Globally, it is like comparing the lifestyle of a chief executive officer (CEO) in a developed country to a farmer in a less developed one. These hierarchies shape opportunities and life experiences. It is like living in different worlds, even though we share the same city or planet.

To review, see:

• What Is Social Stratification?
• Stratification and Mobility
• The New American Dream
• Global Stratification
• Wealth and Poverty

5b. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on social stratification

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism explain social stratification?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding inequality and social class?
• How does the distribution of resources contribute to stratification?

Functionalism looks at social stratification as a system that helps society function smoothly. These theorists frequently use a pyramid to depict this type of structure where everyone has a role. Functionalists suggest that some inequality is necessary for society to work efficiently. Everyone needs to find their place in the puzzle.

Conflict theory, on the other hand, sees social stratification as a battle for resources. The rich and powerful keep the system in their favor while the lower classes struggle to get what they consider their fair share. Conflict theory highlights how inequality leads to tension and struggle. The rich control resources, while the working class fights to maintain a healthy environment and obtain some control over their lives and the means of production, as Marx would have argued.

Symbolic interactionism dives into how society defines the roles and statuses of individuals. This resembles actors on a stage who play their parts based on how society sees them. These theorists believe that our social class affects how we are treated and how we see ourselves. Our class status becomes part of our identity.

The distribution of resources is the main ingredient in the recipe for social stratification. In functionalism, those with more important roles get more resources because they are crucial to society's function. In conflict theory, the wealthy control resources to maintain their power and keep others in check. Symbolic interactionism shows how access to resources affects how we interact with others. For example, if someone is wealthy, they are often treated differently, showing how resources shape social interactions.

To review, see:

• Theoretical Perspectives on Stratification
• Intersectionality and Social Inequality
• Class Consciousness and False Consciousness

5c. Describe global stratification and the difference between absolute, relative, and extreme poverty

• What is global stratification, and how does it impact various nations?
• What are the distinctions between absolute, relative, and extreme poverty?
• How does globalization influence patterns of poverty and wealth?

Some nations are rich and powerful, while others are struggling and less developed. This inequality affects everything from access to basic needs to political influence. Rich nations get to call the shots, while poorer ones often end up on the losing side of the global game.

Absolute poverty is when people cannot even afford the basics to survive. Relative poverty is about feeling poor compared to those around you, even if you have enough to get by. Extreme poverty is the harshest form of absolute poverty, where people lack access to essentials like clean water and food.

Globalization can lift some nations from poverty by opening new markets and jobs. However, it can also deepen inequalities as wealthier countries and multinational corporations force trade agreements that carve out benefits for themselves at the expense of the population in poorer countries. It is a complex dance between nations, where the steps are not always fair for everyone globally.

To review, see:

• Consequences of Stratification
• Inequality
• Data on Global Inequality

5d. Explain modernization and dependency theories

• What are modernization and dependency theories, and how do they explain global inequality?
• How does each theory view the relationship between developed and developing countries?
• Can you think of examples of how modernization and dependency theories apply to real-world situations?

Modernization theory argues that societies become more prosperous and equal as they modernize and adopt advanced technology. Proponents believe developed countries are role models to follow, like elder siblings who help their poorer, less experienced siblings catch up. This theory celebrates the development of East Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, which adopted many of the methods industrialized countries created (such as steel manufacturing and computer technologies) to modernize their economies to compete on a global scale.

Dependency theory examines the inequality between wealthier, more industrially-developed countries and poorer developing countries, which was created and perpetuated by the unequal power dynamics of colonization. It argues that colonial history continues to shape the struggles of the global south, such as where African nations are working to create new social structures and modify the systems their former colonizers established with borders that do not reflect ethnic and cultural divisions. They are building legitimate governments and recreating the social and economic systems the Europeans destroyed and replaced to subjugate the local population. These theories are used to explain why some nations thrive while others struggle.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Inequality.

5e. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on race and ethnicity

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of race and ethnicity?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding constructing racial and ethnic identities?
• How are racial and ethnic inequalities perpetuated or challenged based on these perspectives?

Functionalism sees race and ethnicity as parts of society's machinery, which creates groups with different roles contributing to the overall functioning of society. They suggest these identities serve a purpose in society: to help keep things working smoothly. A functionalist will argue that some inequalities are needed for society to function.

Conflict theory focuses on power struggles among different racial and ethnic groups. These theorists argue that life is a never-ending battle for resources and control. Conflict theory says inequalities persist because powerful groups want to maintain their advantages. These identities create divisions and conflicts when one group is mistreated. They use their influence to keep things as they are.

Symbolic interactionism dives into how race and ethnicity shape our personal interactions. They see race and ethnicity as a script that guides how we see ourselves and others. These theorists show how these identities affect how we communicate, interact, and define ourselves. It is like wearing different masks depending on who we are with. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that these inequalities are reinforced through everyday interactions and cultural norms. But they can also be challenged through awareness and activism, pushing for change.

To review, see:

• Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups
• Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

5f. Distinguish the meaning of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

• How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ in meaning and impact?
• What are the sources and consequences of each of these concepts?
• How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination manifest in different social contexts?

A stereotype is a generalization we make about people who belong to a particular social group that does not take individual differences into account. They can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories. We can be quick to make judgments about people based on group characteristics. Stereotypes often come from social and cultural influences, media, and personal experiences. For example, in the workplace, stereotypes can cause hiring managers to believe that women are less technologically competent than men or that people from Asia are naturally intelligent, docile, or good at math.

Prejudice is a negative attitude, feeling, or belief toward an individual based on their membership in a particular social group. Prejudice is not based on personal experience; it is a prejudgment originating outside actual experience. It is often rooted in stereotypes. Prejudice often arises from learned beliefs or a fear of the unknown. For example, prejudice can cause individuals to avoid making friends with people from a different culture.

Discrimination is when someone acts on the prejudice they feel toward individuals who belong to a particular group. It can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories. Discrimination can stem from prejudice, ignorance, or a desire to maintain power. It can take many forms, from unfair housing practices, such as redlining, to unfair and biased hiring systems. The consequences can be harmful, leading to exclusion, unequal treatment, and social tensions.

To review, see:

• Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
• The Social Construction of Race
• The Social Implications of Race
• White Privilege

5g. Define patterns of intergroup interaction, pluralism, assimilation, segregation, expulsion, and genocide

• What are the patterns of intergroup interaction – pluralism, assimilation, segregation, expulsion, and genocide?
• How do these patterns reflect different approaches to diversity and group relationships?
• Can you think of historical or contemporary examples of each of these patterns?

The following patterns showcase different ways societies handle diversity and group dynamics.

Pluralism is like a colorful mosaic. Some describe it as a "salad bowl" where several different groups coexist while they maintain their distinct cultural identities. Pluralism celebrates diversity, valuing each group's uniqueness. It is prevalent in many large, multicultural global cities, where individuals and groups from various cultures peacefully coexist without giving up the cultural habits and traditions of the places where they originated.

Assimilation is described as a "melting pot" where individuals who belong to a minority group blend into the dominant culture. Assimilation seeks unity by downplaying differences. Assimilation is widespread among second-generation immigrants, where children adopt and blend into the culture of their new host country.

Segregation divides people into different rooms, keeping them apart and isolating groups, often leading to inequality. Segregation was rampant during the Jim Crow era in the United States when federal, state, and local laws were passed after the Civil War beginning in the 1870s to keep Black and White people apart. They could not attend the same public schools, sit in the same sections of a bus or train, live in the same neighborhoods, work in the same office spaces, shop in the same stores, or drink from the same water fountains.

Expulsion forces a group to leave a place during a forced relocation. Expulsion shows rejection and intolerance. It occurred during the Trail of Tears (1830–1850) when the U.S. government forced Native Americans to leave their lands in the southeastern United States.

Genocide is the most extreme and darkest pattern, driven by intense hatred and fear, aiming to eliminate an entire group completely. The Holocaust (1941–1945) is a horrifying example of genocide when the Nazis government in Germany systematically murdered six million Jews. Unfortunately, we continue to see examples of these negative patterns worldwide, such as when armed Hutu militias killed members of the ethnic minority Tutsi group in Rwanda in 1994, the killing and expulsion of the Islamic Rohingya people in Myanmar in 2015, and current atrocities in Ukraine.

To review, see:

• Intergroup Relationships
• Race and Ethnicity in the United States
• The Social Construction of Race
• The Social Implications of Race
• White Privilege

5h. Differentiate between sex, gender, sexuality, and identity

• How do sex, gender, sexuality, and identity differ in meaning and significance?
• What are the distinctions between biological and social understandings of sex and gender?
• How do societal norms and expectations shape individuals' experiences of sex, gender, and gender identity?

Sex refers to biological differences between males and females. Gender is more about how society sees and expects behaviors from each sex. Sexuality is who someone is attracted to. Gender identity is how a person feels about themselves, which includes factors like sex, gender, and sexuality. Each term holds its unique role in defining who we are.

Biologically, sex is often linked to physical characteristics like genitalia and chromosomes. Socially, gender is constructed through norms, roles, and expectations society attaches to each sex. Biology is about the body, while gender is about culture. The distinction between male and female is not just about anatomy but also about how we act and present ourselves.

Societal norms create a script for how people of different sexes and genders should behave. Boys are told to be tough; girls are directed to be nurturing. These norms influence how people identify and express themselves. If someone does not fit the norms, they may face discrimination or struggle with their identity. Society's expectations can either align with someone's identity or create a lot of internal and external conflicts.

To review, see:

• Sex, Gender, and Identity Expression
• Gender and Gender Inequality
• Everyday Sexism
• Power Privilege and Oppression
• Sexuality
• Gender Sex and Sexuality in Popular Culture

5i. Compare gender socialization and stratification

• How does gender socialization contribute to the construction of gender roles and norms?
• How do different sociological perspectives explain gender stratification and inequality?
• How do gender roles and norms impact individuals' opportunities and experiences?

Gender socialization is like a playbook we are handed from a young age. It teaches us what is expected of us as boys or girls. It influences how we dress, behave, and even what we dream of becoming. Through family, media, and peers, we absorb these gender roles and norms, shaping our identities.

Gender stratification is the inequality between men and women that is built into our culture and our institutions.

A functionalist would say that gender roles help society function smoothly by assigning tasks. Conflict theory sees gender inequality as a result of power struggles between genders. Symbolic interactionism digs into how people interact and create gender meanings through everyday interactions. These perspectives offer different angles to understand why gender inequality exists.

Think about how girls are often encouraged to pursue nurturing roles like nursing and early childhood education while boys are pushed toward becoming doctors, scientists, and engineers. These roles limit opportunities for individuals who want to do something different. Consider how societal expectations of masculinity can make it hard for boys to express their emotions openly. Gender roles shape our paths, influencing our education, careers, relationships, and mental health.

To review, see:

• How Rigid Thinking on Sex and Gender Can Go Wrong
• Gender and Gender Inequality
• Everyday Sexism
• Power Privilege and Oppression
• Gender Sex and Sexuality in Popular Culture

5j. Compare senior age groups (young-old, middle-old, and old-old)

• What are the distinctions between the young-old, middle-old, and old-old age groups?
• How do societal perceptions and expectations of senior citizens vary based on these age categories?
• How do aging experiences and challenges differ among these senior age groups?

The young-old are usually 65 to 74 years old, just stepping into retirement. Middle-olds are 75 to 84, and the old-old are 85 and above. It is like a journey from early retirement to more advanced stages of life. Each group faces different challenges and experiences. Challenges evolve as people move through these stages, influencing their independence, social interactions, and overall quality of life.

For the young-old, there is still an expectation of staying active and independent. These individuals are encouraged to enjoy retirement, travel, and pursue active lifestyles. Middle-old individuals tend to face increased health challenges, but they are still seen as part of the community. However, these individuals often grapple with health issues and losing loved ones. Old-old individuals encounter stereotypes of frailty and dependence. Society's view of seniors shifts as they age, reflecting the realities they face. Old-old people deal with more physical limitations and may need assistance with daily activities.

To review, see Who Are the Elderly? and How Society Will Change as the Population Ages.

5k. Explain the process of aging through a biological, psychological, and social lens

• How does aging manifest through biological changes in the body?
• What psychological and cognitive changes are commonly associated with aging?
• How do social interactions and societal contexts influence the experiences of aging?

As we age, our body's cells begin to slow down and repair less efficiently. Our skin wrinkles, bones become less dense, and our metabolism changes. Muscles may weaken, and senses such as vision and hearing can decline. Our body's machinery gradually wears down over time. Memory may not be as sharp, and processing information can take longer. The brain's processing speed decreases. Some may experience mood changes, such as increased vulnerability to depression. However, wisdom often grows with age as we learn from experiences and develop better emotional regulation.

Social interactions are like nutrients for our well-being as we age. Having friends and family around can combat feelings of isolation. Society's view of aging also matters. If it is positive, people may embrace aging with enthusiasm. If it is negative, seniors may internalize stereotypes and feel like they have become invisible to the rest of the world. Social support and how society values older individuals play a significant role in shaping the aging experience.

To review, see:

• The Aging Process
• Challenges Facing Older People
• Visual Ageism in the Media
• Theoretical Perspectives on Aging

Unit 5 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• absolute poverty
• aging through biological, psychological, and social lenses
• assimilation
• dependency theory
• discrimination
• distribution of resources
• ethnicity
• expulsion
• extreme poverty
• gender
• gender identity
• gender socialization
• gender stratification
• genocide
• global stratification
• local stratification
• middle-old
• modernization theory
• old-old
• pluralism
• prejudice
• race
• relative poverty
• senior age groups: young-old, middle-old, old-old
• segregation
• sex
• Sexuality
• social stratification
• societal norm
• stereotype
• young-old

Unit 6: Sociological Institutions

6a. Explain the social institution of the family

• What is the social institution of the family, and why is it important?
• How does the concept of family vary across cultures and historical contexts?
• What are the different functions that families serve within societies?

The family is often our most important primary group, usually related by blood, marriage, or adoption. It is where we first learn about relationships, values, and norms. Families provide emotional support, care, and a sense of belonging. They lay the foundation for our social interactions and identity.

Family is not a one-size-fits-all concept. In some cultures, a "family" includes parents, children, and relatives such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins – an extended family. In others, a "family" only refers to the parents and children – a nuclear family. Historical context shapes family dynamics. A hundred years ago, the entire extended family often lived in the same house. Today, families are often spread out due to urbanization and globalization.

Families serve many functions to help society run smoothly. They provide emotional support and teach us how to express and handle emotions. Families also socialize us, teaching us the norms and values of our culture. They offer economic support, help in times of need, and often play a role in passing down traditions. Families contribute to society by nurturing the next generation, helping maintain social order, and being a safety net for their members.

To review, see:

• What Is Family and Marriage?
• Social Institutional Functions
• Variations in Family Life
• The Family and Family Structure

6b. Explain the social impact of variations in family life, such as single parents, cohabitation, same-sex couples, and unmarried individuals

• How do variations in family life, such as single-parent households and cohabitation, impact individuals and society?
• What are the challenges and benefits associated with these diverse family structures?
• How does the concept of family expand to include same-sex couples and unmarried individuals?

Variations in family life reflect changes in societal norms and values. Single-parent households often face challenges balancing work and child-rearing simply because there is one less parent to help with these responsibilities. They may struggle with financial stability and time constraints, but they also foster strong bonds between parents and children. Many single parents find help from other family members and friends to create a robust and healthy environment for their children.

Cohabitation offers a more flexible approach to relationships where couples choose to live together without getting married. Cohabitation can offer emotional support without the legal complexities of marriage, but it may also lack the security of a formal commitment. Same-sex couples create families based on love and commitment, although they often face legal and social challenges. Unmarried individuals also form chosen families, relying on friends and close connections.

Each structure brings its mix of advantages and challenges, impacting relationships, well-being, and individual growth. These variations challenge the traditional notion of family, emphasizing the importance of emotional bonds and mutual support in defining familial relationships. The concept of family is evolving beyond traditional boundaries.

To review, see:

• Variations in Family Life
• The Family and Family Structure
• Challenges Families Face

6c. Explain how the major sociological paradigms view religion

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of religion?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the role of religion in societies?
• How do religious beliefs and practices influence social cohesion and conflict?

Religious beliefs often provide a sense of belonging and shared purpose, fostering social cohesion. Communities united by faith often work together for common goals. However, religious differences can also lead to conflict. Throughout history, religious disagreements have sparked wars and social tensions. Religious beliefs and practices can either strengthen societal bonds or create divisions, depending on how they are interpreted and acted upon.

Functionalism sees religion as a social institution that helps maintain order and stability. Functionalists often suggest that religion provides a moral compass and social cohesion. It offers rituals and beliefs that help people navigate life's uncertainties.

Karl Marx would probably agree with the functionalist perspective that religion helps maintain the status quo and helps its followers seek comfort. However, Marx aimed to encourage workers to revolt against those in power. Religion, which he famously called the "opiate of the masses", suppresses emancipatory politics. Conflict theory believes religion is a tool the powerful uses to control and justify inequalities.

Symbolic interactionism examines how people interpret and create religious meanings through interactions. Each perspective brings a unique lens to understand religion's role in society. Symbolic interactionism highlights how religious symbols and interactions shape personal beliefs and group identity.

To review, see:

• The Sociological Approach to Religion
• Atheism 2.0
• Theorizing a Sociology of Religion

6d. Describe world religions within the United States

• How would you describe the diversity of world religions present within the United States?
• How does religious diversity impact the social and cultural landscape of the country?
• How has globalization contributed to the presence of various world religions within the United States?

Many see the United States as a melting pot of religious diversity. Christianity is the largest religion, but there is a significant presence of Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, and more. A growing number of people identify as non-religious or practicing indigenous or New Age spiritualities. This diverse tapestry reflects the country's history of immigration and freedom of religion.

Religious diversity enriches the social fabric of the United States. It brings together people from various backgrounds, fostering understanding and interfaith dialogue. It also challenges individuals to embrace different perspectives and values, promoting tolerance and unity. At the same time, it can lead to clashes of beliefs and practices, sparking debates about cultural integration and religious freedom.

Globalization has made it easier for individuals to connect with others in different parts of the world. Immigration patterns bring people with diverse religious backgrounds to the United States and other countries. Technology and travel have allowed religious ideas and practices to spread more quickly. Consequently, the United States has become a microcosm of the world's religions, reflecting the interconnectedness of our globalized society.

To review, see World Religions and Religion in the United States.

6e. Describe the education system as a local and global social institution

• How is the education system both a local and global social institution?
• What are the functions that education serves within societies?
• How does the education system reflect and perpetuate social inequalities?

The education system is a dual entity – it reflects local cultures and values and is influenced by global trends. Local education systems adapt to specific cultural norms and needs, shaping students' identities within their communities. However, globalization impacts education by sharing knowledge, methods, and curricula across borders. The education system prepares individuals to be part of their local community and the global world.

Education is more than just textbooks and classrooms. It is a social glue that binds societies together. It imparts knowledge and skills, preparing individuals for their roles in the workforce and civic life. Education also instills values and norms, helping individuals understand their roles as responsible citizens. It fosters social mobility, allowing individuals to improve their socioeconomic status. Moreover, it contributes to cultural preservation, ensuring traditions are passed down to future generations.

While education can be a ladder for upward mobility, it is not always equally accessible. Social inequalities often translate into unequal educational opportunities. Wealthier families often access better schools and resources, creating an educational advantage. Moreover, the curriculum and teaching methods may inadvertently reinforce societal norms and values that favor certain groups. This perpetuates existing inequalities by replicating advantages and disadvantages across generations.

To review, see:

• Education around the World
• Theoretical Perspectives on Education
• Functionalism and Conflict Theory

6f. Discuss recent social perspectives on education

• What are some recent social perspectives on education and its role in societies?
• How do contemporary issues, such as technology and globalization, impact educational systems?
• How do sociological insights contribute to understanding the challenges and opportunities of modern education?

Recent social perspectives on education highlight its evolving nature. Some view education as a means to foster critical thinking and creativity, preparing students for a rapidly changing job market. Others emphasize the importance of inclusivity and diversity, advocating for education that reflects the experiences of all students. Additionally, there is a growing recognition of the role of education in addressing social issues and promoting social justice.

Technology has transformed education, providing new tools for learning and communication. Online education, digital resources, and virtual classrooms have expanded access to education but have also raised concerns about unequal access and the quality of online learning, the digital divide. Globalization has made cultural exchange and international collaboration more accessible, prompting educational institutions to incorporate global perspectives and prepare students for a connected world.

Sociological insights shed light on the complex interplay between education and society. They help us understand how educational institutions reproduce or challenge societal inequalities. Sociologists examine how social structures and power dynamics influence educational policies and practices. They analyze the impact of cultural diversity on learning experiences. By applying sociological perspectives, we can better navigate the challenges and leverage the opportunities presented by the modern education landscape.

To review, see Issues in Education.

6g. Differentiate between power, authority, and different types of authority

• How do power and authority differ in their meanings and manifestations?
• How would you differentiate between different types of authority, such as traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority?
• How does the concept of authority influence social order and relationships within societies?

Power and authority are related but distinct concepts. Power is the ability to influence others and make decisions, often through coercion or persuasion. Authority, on the other hand, is a legitimate form of power. It is when individuals or institutions are granted the right to make decisions and control others' actions based on recognized norms or laws.

Traditional authority is rooted in tradition and custom, where leaders gain legitimacy due to long-standing practices. Charismatic authority is based on the personal appeal and charisma of a leader. People follow because the leader's qualities inspire them. Legal-rational authority comes from the position someone holds within a formal organization. People obey based on the established rules and regulations associated with that position.

Authority is essential for maintaining social order. It establishes hierarchies and structures that help societies function smoothly. People follow authority figures because they believe in their legitimacy. This obedience helps prevent chaos and fosters cooperation. Authority also shapes relationships by creating roles and expectations. However, authority can also be a source of conflict if its legitimacy is challenged or if it is used unjustly.

To review, see Power and Authority.

6h. Compare forms of government, such as monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, and democracy

• How do different forms of government – monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, and democracy – differ in their structures and principles?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the dynamics and implications of these government systems?
• Can you think of historical or contemporary examples of each form of government?

A single king or queen rules a monarchy, which is typically hereditary. An oligarchy is controlled by a small elite group. A dictatorship is when power rests with one single ruler who often has absolute authority. A democracy involves citizens participating in decision-making, either directly or through elected representatives.

Sociological perspectives examine how these government systems impact social order, inequality, and citizen participation. A functionalist would view monarchy as providing stability but perpetuating inequality. Conflict theory focuses on how oligarchies concentrate power in the hands of a few, causing class struggles. A symbolic interactionist might study how citizens' interactions and beliefs influence democratic processes. Analyzing government systems helps us understand how they shape society and individuals' lives.

The British have a constitutional monarchy, where the king has a symbolic role, but the parliament has true governing authority limited by the rule of law and documented traditions. Ancient Sparta provides an example of where an elite group once ruled. North Korea, under Kim Jong-un's rule, is an example of a dictatorship. The United States, where citizens elect representatives, is an example of a democracy.

To review, see:

• Forms of Government
• Politics in the United States
• Voting in America: The 2016 Presidential Election

6i. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on government and politics

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of government and politics?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the role of government in society and the exercise of political power?
• How can different perspectives analyze the relationship between citizens and the state?

Functionalism sees government as necessary for maintaining social order, with various institutions working together to ensure stability. Functionalists emphasize the government's role in creating laws and regulations that promote societal cohesion. Citizens are obligated to the state to follow laws for social harmony.

Conflict theory views government as a tool for the ruling class to maintain power and control over resources, often leading to inequality. Governments can perpetuate social inequalities by favoring the powerful. Conflict theory sees citizens as navigating power struggles and advocating for their interests against the state.

Symbolic interactionism reveals how political symbols and language shape individuals' perceptions and interactions with the political system. These theorists examine how the interactions of individuals shape political behavior and attitudes, influencing the collective political landscape. They study how citizens engage with political symbols, engage in political discourse, and form their political identities based on social interactions.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Government and Power.

6j. Differentiate agrarian, capitalist, and socialist economic systems and globalization as it pertains to work and the economy

• How do agrarian, capitalist, and socialist economic systems differ in their principles and modes of production?
• How does globalization affect work and the economy within different economic systems?
• How does each economic system address issues of inequality and social welfare?

Agrarian economies rely on agriculture and manual labor as the primary mode of production. Capitalist economies are based on private ownership and the pursuit of profit, with markets determining prices and the allocation of resources. Socialist economies emphasize public ownership and collective control over resources, aiming for equitable distribution of wealth and resources.

Globalization has different effects on each system. In agrarian economies, globalization can lead to shifts in agriculture production and trade. In capitalist economies, it can increase competition and create a global marketplace for goods and services. In socialist economies, globalization may influence state-led industrialization and trade agreements based on collective interests.

Agrarian economies often struggle with unequal distribution of land and resources where wealthy landowners and corporations control the means of production. Capitalist economies can lead to similar income inequalities with the unbridled pursuit of profit. Socialist economies prioritize social welfare, aiming to reduce inequality through public ownership and redistributive policies. Some argue these policies lead to waste and inefficiencies, while others support its focus on societal justice. Each system seeks to address inequality in its own way, influenced by its core principles.

To review, see:

• Economic Systems
• Thoughts on Capitalism
• Capital in the 21st Century

6k. Explain social aspects of inequality and poverty in the United States

• How do social aspects contribute to inequality and poverty within the United States?
• What factors perpetuate or challenge social disparities and economic hardship?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the root causes of poverty and the efforts to alleviate it?

Social aspects such as race, gender, education, and access to resources significantly impact inequality and poverty in the United States. Structural barriers and discrimination often limit opportunities for marginalized groups, exacerbating economic disparities.

Factors such as systemic racism (policies and practices that exist throughout society), unequal access to education and healthcare, and limited social mobility perpetuate disparities. Efforts to challenge disparities include policies that promote equal opportunities, social safety nets, and anti-discrimination measures.

Functionalism may view poverty as a result of societal dysfunction, while conflict theory emphasizes the power struggles and inequality that cause poverty. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how labels and stigmas associated with poverty shape individuals' experiences. Sociological analysis helps uncover the complex interplay between social structures, policies, and individual agency in understanding and addressing poverty.

To review, see Work in the United States and Sociological Approach to the Economy.

Unit 6 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• agrarian
• authority
• capitalist
• charismatic authority
• cohabitation
• constitutional monarchy
• democracy
• dictatorship
• education
• extended family
• family
• globalization
• legal-rational authority
• melting pot
• monarchy
• nuclear family
• oligarchy
• power
• religion
• rule of law
• same-sex couple
• single-parent household
• socialist economic system
• social disparities
• systemic racism
• traditional authority
• unmarried individual

Unit 7: Social Change and Social Issues

7a. Explain different forms of collective behavior

• What are the different forms of collective behavior observed in societies?
• How do crowds, mobs, panics, and fads manifest, and what are their implications for social dynamics?
• How do sociological theories explain the emergence and consequences of collective behavior?

Collective behavior appears in various forms, such as crowds, mobs, panics, and fads. Crowds are gatherings of people with shared emotions or interests. A mob, which has a negative connotation, is a group that pursues a common goal, usually with intense emotions. Panics are sudden, irrational reactions to threats. Fads are short-lived trends that spread rapidly.

Crowds can be peaceful or turn into mobs when emotions escalate. Panics often lead to irrational decision-making and behaviors during emergencies, such as fires or acts of violence. Fads emerge and spread quickly due to social influences. Fashion trends are often described as fads that will disappear quickly when a new popular style emerges. These phenomena reflect how individuals behave in groups, influencing norms, emotions, and actions.

Functionalists view collective behavior as an expression or response to societal dysfunctions, needs, and tensions. Conflict theorists view collective behavior as a normal and expected group response to social injustice and class power struggle. Remember that Karl Marx predicted the working class (proletariat) would join forces to overthrow the ruling class (bourgeoisie) to protest their dismal living conditions during the Industrial Revolution and win control of the means of production. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals' shared symbols and meanings influence their collective behavior. Sociological theories help us understand why and how collective behavior occurs, shedding light on its beneficial or destructive impact on societies.

To review, see Collective Behavior.

7b. Discuss the characteristics and causes of social movements

• What characteristics define social movements?
• What factors contribute to the emergence and success of social movements?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the motivations and dynamics behind social movements?

Social movements are collective efforts to bring about social change. They involve organized groups with shared goals, strategies, and sustained efforts to address specific issues. Social movements often challenge existing power structures and advocate for social justice or equality.

Most social movements originate as grievances, complaints about social injustices, frustration with inaction, or a collective demand for change. Success depends on the relative effectiveness of the group's ability to organize its followers, access to resources, public support, and the ability to influence policy. Media coverage, alliances, and charismatic leaders can also impact success.

As mentioned above, functionalists view collective behavior as an expression or response to societal dysfunctions, needs, and tensions. Conflict theorists view collective behavior as a normal and expected group response to social injustice and class power struggle. Remember that Karl Marx predicted the working class (proletariat) would join forces to overthrow the ruling class (bourgeoisie) to protest their dismal living conditions during the Industrial Revolution and win control of the means of production. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals' shared symbols and meanings influence their collective behavior. Sociological theories help us understand why and how collective behavior occurs, shedding light on its beneficial or destructive impact on societies.

To review, see Social Movements and What Makes Social Movements Succeed?.

7c. Explain how technology, social institutions, population, and the environment can promote social change

• How do technology, social institutions, population changes, and environmental factors influence social change?
• Can you think of examples of how each of these factors has contributed to shifts in societies?
• How do these factors interact and shape the trajectory of social change?

New technologies and scientific innovation have historically disrupted traditional norms and behaviors. Social institutions, such as family, government, education, and religious institutions, can adapt to these disruptions or dig in their heels to resist change. Changing demographics and population can impact social dynamics. Environmental factors, such as when plentiful resources become scarce and climate change, can also prompt shifts.

Technological advances have transformed communication and promoted new types of businesses and advances in medicine. Evolving social norms and trends toward social acceptance have changed the family structure. Population growth has led to urbanization and multicultural societies. Environmental concerns have driven movements for sustainability. These changes can stoke division and even violence when conflicts arise between those who fear change and want to retain previous social norms and those who are more willing to accept change and adapt.

Interactions during periods of social change are usually complex. Technological innovation affects social institutions, and population changes impact resource demand. Environmental crises can prompt social movements. These factors shape the direction and pace of social change, leading to intricate societal transformations.

To review, see Social Change and The Power of Social Intrapreneurship.

7d. Describe demographic theories, including cornucopian, demographic transition, Malthusian, and zero population growth

• How do demographic theories explain population dynamics and growth?
• What is the difference between cornucopian, demographic transition, Malthusian, and zero population growth theories?
• How do these theories impact our understanding of population trends and their implications?

Demographic theories study population changes and growth. They analyze birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration to understand population trends and dynamics. The cornucopian theory is optimistic about human ingenuity overcoming resource limitations. Demographic transition theory explains how societies shift from high birth and death rates to lower rates or change. Malthusian theory warns of overpopulation outpacing resources. Zero population growth theory aims for an equal balance between births and deaths.

These theories shape how we interpret population trends. Demographic transition theory helps predict shifts in birth and death rates. Malthusian theory highlights concerns about resource depletion. Zero population growth theory informs discussions about sustainability and family planning. Each theory contributes to understanding population dynamics and their consequences.

To review, see Demography and Population.

7e. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on urbanization

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism view urbanization?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the impact of urbanization on individuals and societies?
• Explain how each perspective analyzes the challenges and opportunities urbanization presents.

Functionalism emphasizes the role urbanization plays in meeting diverse societal needs efficiently. Because people live in a compact area, it is easier, less expensive, and more efficient for institutions to serve many individuals in a short amount of time with limited travel needs. Functionalism emphasizes the benefits of urban infrastructure and specialized roles.

Conflict theory highlights disparities in urban areas due to power dynamics and views urbanization as a source of inequality and resource competition. Remember that Karl Marx was especially critical of the substandard, unhealthy living conditions factory workers endured when they moved to urban centers during the Industrial Revolution when cities were overcrowded, polluted, and centers of disease. He protested the social inequalities cities exacerbated between the upper classes and the working poor.

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how urban spaces shape daily interactions and identities. These sociologists examine how urban environments shape people's behaviors and interactions. They explored how urban spaces affect personal interactions, identity formation, and socialization. Each perspective adds a unique lens to understanding the complexities of urbanization.

To review, see Urbanization.

7f. Discuss examples of environmental racism

• What is environmental racism, and how does it manifest in societies?
• Can you think of examples of environmental injustices and their impact on marginalized communities?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the root causes of environmental racism and its implications?

Environmental racism refers to the disproportionate burden environmental hazards put on marginalized communities, often due to race and socioeconomic status. This type of discrimination manifests itself when city governments allow companies to build polluting industries, install waste sites, and eliminate or reduce access to clean resources in areas where these populations reside. The communities are exposed to toxins, fumes, toxic dust, ash, soot, and other pollutants. Research data has shown that residents in these areas experience disproportionate and higher rates of cancer, lead poisoning, obesity (because it is not safe to play or exercise outside), asthma, and other respiratory issues.

Examples include cities that create landfills and dump toxic waste near low-income neighborhoods where residents cannot afford to mount effective protests, enforce healthy regulatory practices, or move to healthier neighborhoods. Low-income families buy houses and rent apartments in these areas because they cannot afford to live elsewhere. Many are unaware of the dangers when they move in, such as in low-lying areas that are now more prone to flooding due to climate change.

In 2014, a local pediatrician discovered, and a group of student researchers in Virginia documented, that Black children who lived in Flint, Michigan, had higher levels of lead poisoning because the city water system had elevated levels of lead and other contaminants. City officials ignored their pleas for help until the residents took action based on the data collection. On a global level, indigenous groups face the desecration of sacred lands and ecological harm and destruction due to excessive and disproportionate mining and resource extraction.

Functionalists emphasize the economic interests driving industry placement. Conflict theory focuses on power dynamics perpetuating these types of social injustice. Symbolic interactionism explores how stigmatization affects affected communities. Together, these perspectives help understand the structural, systemic, and symbolic aspects of environmental racism.

To review, see:

• The Environment and Society
• Environmental Racism
• Tragedy of the Commons

7g. Explain the social construction of health and illness and local and global disparities

• How are health and illness socially constructed concepts that vary across cultures?
• What are the local and global disparities in access to healthcare and health outcomes?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the role of social factors in shaping health and well-being?

Cultural beliefs shape our perspective and understanding of health and illness. What is considered healthy or normal varies among societies. For example, mental health definitions differ across cultures, impacting stigma and treatment. Social norms and acceptance can also color how we treat those who suffer from drug addiction and sexually transmitted diseases like HIV/AIDS. Locally, disparities can result from income inequality, affecting access to quality care. Globally, limited resources impact health in developing nations. Inequities in health outcomes between wealthy and impoverished areas illustrate these disparities.

Functionalism views healthcare as essential for a functioning society. Conflict theory highlights how wealth and power structures impact how different communities can access adequate healthcare. Symbolic interactionism examines how social interactions and labeling affect health experiences. These perspectives help uncover the social complexities of health and illness.

To review, see:

• The Social Construction of Health
• Global Health
• Health in the United States
• Health Equity
• Healthcare Disparities in the United States
• Comparative Health and Medicine

7h. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on health and medicine

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of health and medicine?
• What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the role of healthcare systems and medical institutions?
• How do different perspectives analyze the relationships between patients, medical professionals, and the healthcare industry?

Functionalism views healthcare as crucial for creating a stable society, with medical institutions that serve a vital role in maintaining the health and well-being of the community. Medical professionals are essential components for promoting this purpose.

Conflict theorists expose healthcare disparities that arise from economic and social inequalities and other power struggles. A contemporary example is research that shows Black women are three to four times more likely to experience a pregnancy-related death than White women in the United States. The research showed that Black women face barriers to quality care due to racism, sexism, and income inequality. It found that physicians disregarded complaints about pain due to stereotypes, ignored patient questions, and failed to follow up on treatment recommendations. Low-income families often have to choose between essential resources such as housing, child care, food, and health care. In addition, fewer healthcare providers serve these communities. Conflict theory reveals power dynamics between patients, providers, and industry.

Symbolic interactionism explores how individuals' interactions with healthcare shape their experiences. These theorists underscore how patient-provider interactions shape perceptions of healthcare. They delve into how doctor-patient interactions influence medical care perceptions.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Health and Medicine.

7i. Explain technological inequality and issues related to unequal access to technology

• What is technological inequality, and how does it manifest in societies?
• Can you think of examples of how unequal access to technology perpetuates social disparities?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the consequences of technological inequality on individuals and communities?

Technological inequality refers to the disparities communities face when trying to access or use technology. This digital divide can occur due to socioeconomic factors, limiting certain groups' access to digital resources and opportunities. This divide is also particularly evident in rural communities where it can be cost-prohibitive for companies to provide high-speed broadband services to connect education institutions, healthcare facilities, libraries, and workplaces. Unequal access to computers and the internet hinders educational and job opportunities. Inadequate digital skills affect job market competitiveness. Lack of access to online healthcare and information deepens health disparities.

Functionalism examines how technological inequality impacts societal function. Conflict theory highlights how powerful groups control technology, deepening inequalities. Symbolic interactionism explores how unequal access affects interactions and identities. These perspectives reveal the multifaceted impact of technological inequality.

To review, see Technology Today.

7j. Define different types of media and concerns with the globalization of media

• What are the different media types, and how do they influence public perception and communication?
• What is media globalization, and what are its potential effects on cultural diversity?
• How do sociological perspectives analyze the role of media in shaping public discourse and social interactions?

Media includes print, broadcast, digital, and social platforms. Media can shape public perception through news, entertainment, and information dissemination, impacting how people perceive events, issues, and each other. Globalization of media refers to the spread of media content worldwide. While it can promote cultural exchange, it may also lead to cultural homogenization as dominant media cultures overshadow local identities.

Functionalism views media as a tool for societal cohesion and information sharing. Conflict theory emphasizes the media's role in perpetuating power imbalances. Symbolic interactionism studies how media influences social interactions and meanings. These perspectives all display the media's complex impact on society.

To review, see:

• Media and Technology in Society
• The Role of Media in Society
• Global Implications of Media and Technology

7k. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on media and technology

• How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism study media and technology?
• What insights do they offer regarding the impact of media and technology on society and individuals?
• How do different perspectives analyze the relationships between media content, technology use, and social dynamics?

Functionalism sees the media as reflecting societal values promoting social cohesion and stability. Conflict theory emphasizes the media's role in shaping dominant narratives. The media can reinforce and perpetuate power dynamics, inequalities, and societal divisions. Symbolic interactionism studies how individuals interpret and interact with media content. These sociologists focus on how the media shapes meanings, personal perceptions, and interactions. These perspectives illuminate the media's intricate connections with society.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives of Media and Technology and Mass Media.

Unit 7 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• collective behavior
• cornucopian theory
• crowd
• demographic transition theory
• digital divide
• environmental injustices
• environmental racism
• fad
• globalization of media
• Malthusian theory
• mob
• panic
• social construction of health and illness
• social movement
• unequal access to technology
• urbanization
• zero population growth theory