HIST103: World History (1600–Present)

4a. Explain why Islamic empires were able to expand so rapidly and then maintain their power

• Why were the Islamic empires of Mali, Songhai, and the Ottomans able to expand so rapidly and maintain their power?
• How did key leaders help expand power in each empire?
• What role did trade routes have in maintaining power for each empire?

The Islamic empires of Africa and the Middle East – the Mali (1226–1620), Songhai (1430s–1591), and Ottoman Empires (1299–1922) – were wealthy, powerful, and impactful. While the Mali and Songhai Empires were on the edges of trade routes, the Ottoman Empire was strategically located at the crossroads of trade between Europe and the Middle East. They gained political and economic hegemony over Asia and Europe when they took control of the Silk Road. After 1500, Sufism, a popular mystical form of Islam, brought Islamic empires together with a sense of shared or universal brotherhood. It emphasized community unity or ummah. 

To review, see The Connected Islamic World.

4b. Discuss the history of the Ottoman Empire and its relationship with Europe

• How did the Ottoman Empire establish economic authority over Europe and Asia?
• What role did commerce, the Silk Road and the Devonshire System play in the relationship between Europe and the Ottoman Empire?

The Ottoman Empire was one of the most powerful empires in history. During the Crusades of the 13th century, Catholic Europeans were unable to break Ottoman hegemony. The Ottomans assumed control of the Silk Road trade routes when it defeated the Byzantine Empire (the Asian Roman Empire) in 1453. They ruled more than three million square miles in today's Turkey, Eastern Europe, and Africa. However, its failure during the Siege of Vienna in 1529 prevented it from expanding into parts of Italy.

Christians in the Balkin region of Eastern Europe were forced to surrender their firstborn sons according to the Devonshire system. They were converted to Islam and trained as Janissaries, a legendary fighting group devoted to protecting the sultan. The sultans maintained harems with many wives and concubines. Although most lacked political power, several, such as Hurrem Sultan (also known as Roxelana), became powerful and influential. This era, beginning in the 1520s, was known as the Sultanate of Women.

Ottoman control of the Silk Road led European traders, like the Portuguese, to seek alternative maritime trade routes to Asia. This Era of European Exploration led to colonization that would take over the Americas, Africa, and parts of Asia.

To review, see The Ottoman Empire.

4c. Compare and contrast traits of different Islamic empires in government, science, and the military

• How were the governments of the Islamic Empires similar and different?
• How did each cultivate the sciences?
• What role did the military play in each empire?

The Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empires controlled vast areas of land and key trading routes in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and India. Elite military units, such as the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire and the Qizilbash of the Safavid Empire, used modern guns and cannons to create a military juggernaut that quickly vanquished their enemies.

The Ottoman Empire had centralized administration with a millet system that promoted religious tolerance as long as communities remained loyal to the sultan. The Mughal Empire was ruled by an absolute monarchy with a divine emperor. The Safavid Empire featured a theocratic government system where the Shah was the religious and political leader.

These Islamic empires were centers of learning and the sciences, built on the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans, which the Europeans lost during the Middle Ages (500 to 1500). The Ottomans focused on geography, astronomy for navigation, cartography, and a time system for their prayer rituals. The Mughals benefited from the advanced and natural sciences that had been cultivated in India and made significant contributions to architecture, astronomy, and medicine. The Safavid Empire was a center of learning in the fields of medicine, astronomy, and philosophy.

To review, see The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.

4d. Summarize the history of the Safavid Empire

• When and where was the Safavid Empire?
• How did it contribute to the spread of Islam?

The Safavid Empire (1501–1736) was based in Persia or modern-day Iran. Shah Ismail I (1487–1524), a descendant of Sheikh Safi al-Din (1252–1334), founded the ruling dynasty. Many historians call this period a golden age of Iranian history, especially in the fields of architecture, learning, the arts, and language. The Safavid Empire spread Persian culture throughout the region as far as Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Pakistan.

The Empire reached its height under the rule of Shah Abbas the Great (1588–1629). Military campaigns and improved trade routes enriched his rule. He moved the capital to Isfahan and supported architectural and artistic works, such as the Imperial Mosque. A theocracy, the Safavid Empire adopted the Twelver branch of Shiite Islam as the state religion. Islam experienced a great schism when the Prophet Muhammad died in 632. The Sunni believed they could choose the Caliph outside the Prophet Muhammad's family, but the Shiite believed the leader must be a descendant. The Shah was a political and religious leader, and Islamic law provided the basis for the legal system. The Empire began to decline during the 18th century due to foreign threats and the rise of modern Iranian nationalism.

To review, see The Safavid Empire and More on the Safavid Empire.

Unit 4 Vocabulary

• Byzantine Empire
• Caliph
• Crusades
• Devonshire system
• Era of Exploration
• harem
• Imperial Mosque
• Isfahan
• Janissaries
• Middle Ages
• millet system
• Persia
• Prophet Muhammad
• Qizilbash
• Safavid Empire
• Shah Ismail I
• Sheikh Safi al-Din
• Shiite Islam
• Siege of Vienna
• Sufism
• Sultanate of Women
• Sunni
• Turkmenistan
• Twelver branch
• ummah