HIST362 Study Guide

Unit 1: The Nature of Revolution

1a. Describe the nature and impact of revolution

What are the beliefs and unique perspectives of Karl Marx, Alex de Tocqueville, Crane Brinton, Chalmers Johnson, and Benedict Anderson regarding revolution?
What did Karl Marx mean by class conflict, the proletariat, the bourgeoisie, and communism?
What did Crane Brinton mean by social equilibrium, disequilibrium, and revolution?
What is the difference between a societal and political revolution?

In Latin, the word revolution means to turn around. Revolution refers to a change in how things are done to such an extent that the course of history is forever altered. Revolutions change the way people operate, think, and cooperate. Studying revolutions helps us examine history through the lens of change to understand the causes and impact of drastic changes in government, technology, economics, society, and culture.

Revolutions usually result from turmoil in some spheres of life. Political revolutions are significant, rapid changes in a society's government structure, often involving the overthrow of an existing regime and the establishment of a new governing order. They occur due to political unrest, instability, and discontent. The populace no longer recognizes the government or its leaders as legitimate. Examples include the American, Chinese, French, Haitian, and Russian Revolutions.

Social revolutions are significant changes in a society's structure, values, and norms, often involving widespread upheaval, reordering of hierarchies, and the emergence of new social structures or ideologies. They have changed and modernized academia and technology, production, study, and how people think about the world. Social and cultural changes, such as during the Enlightenment, often led to revolutionary changes in political thought. Examples include the Industrial and Scientific Revolutions.

Karl Marx (1818–1883), the German philosopher and revolutionary activist, is known for his views on social or class conflict within society. He advocated that the working class (the proletariat) should revolt against the upper classes (the bourgeoisie) to support better working conditions. Marx predicted society would become more stable and equal once capitalism failed. Communism is the solution that Marx predicts will result in property becoming publicly owned. According to his political philosophy, each individual will work as much as possible and be paid according to their need.

Alex de Tocqueville (1805–1859), a French political historian, believed that revolution would result when monarchies and other state agencies centralized all power and decision-making in their own hands. The elite, nobility, middle, and merchant classes will eventually protest to oppose these centralizing efforts that interfere with their liberties and privileges, such as excessive taxation and interference in their ability to own and control their private property.

Crane Brinton (1898–1968), an American historian, argued that revolution is simply part of the natural order of human development when intellectuals become alienated and stop believing in the political system. The intellectuals may merge with other groups, such as the middle, working, or peasant classes, to remove the old order through revolution but then fight among each other and fail to achieve lasting change. Growing societies may have to endure a revolutionary fever until a "normal" and "healthy" state of social equilibrium is restored, and then the next round of protests erupts, and the revolutionary cycle occurs yet again.

The American author Chalmers Johnson (1931–2010) argued that revolution results when the social equilibrium, social order, or sense of balance stable communities exhibit is disrupted. Revolution results from disequilibrium between the ruling elite and the populace when the elite does not adapt to pressures or external changes. Samuel Huntington (1927–2008), an American political scientist, presents a variant of this theory by saying revolution results when societies fail to cope with modernization and mass mobilization.

Benedict Anderson (1936–2015), an American sociologist, argues that governments often provoke revolution when they inflame nationalist sentiments to create a new nationalist identity. Modern ways of thinking undermine old universal belief structures, such as traditional ties to religion and multi-ethnic empires.

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1b. Explain how the Enlightenment affected the English Civil War

What conditions brought about the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason?
What was the importance of the Magna Carta and the Petition of Rights?
What concepts did Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant bring to the discussion of revolution?
How did the Enlightenment change the way philosophers viewed the role of the government and the people?
How did the English Civil War influence the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment or Age of Reason (1715–1789) describes the period when philosophers and intellectuals emerged outside the traditional religious sphere to question the established social and political order. Primary philosophical concepts included skepticism of the political establishment, the pursuit of reason, religious tolerance, liberty, and empiricism (the theory that we derive knowledge from our sensory experiences). In line with the Renaissance, which preceded it, the focus of the Enlightenment philosophers was on man rather than God (see section 5f below).

Before the 1700s, people were seen as inherently unequal. Philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) began arguing for natural rights, where everyone deserves to be treated equally, with respect and dignity. While it formally began after the English Civil War, the Enlightenment was a movement that emphasized the need to limit the absolute authority of government and allow for the rights of the people.

The Enlightenment was caused by gradual shifts in the power structure between the ruling elite and the populace. Beginning with the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, the concept that governments were constrained by a social contract with the people began to emerge. The Magna Carta (1215) was the first charter to support the rule of law and civil liberties in Europe: it declared the King was not above the law and could not deprive anyone of their land, castles, liberties, or rights without "the lawful judgment of his peers". The Petition of Right (1628) reinforced the legal principles of the Magna Carta and added that the King could not impose his will on parliament, invoke taxes without parliamentary approval, or support a standing army.

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1c. Explain how the English Civil War influenced future revolutions in Eurasia and the Americas

How did the English Bill of Rights change the relationship between the government and people and contribute to the concept of human rights?
What is a constitutional monarchy?
What principles did the levellers and diggers champion during the English Civil War?
Why was John Locke's belief in religious toleration and the separation of church and state important at this time?

The English Civil War, also called the English Revolution or the Glorious Revolution, describes the period of armed political and social conflict that occurred from 1642 to 1660 and promoted the creation of a constitutional monarchy. In early 1640, intellectuals met to discuss the ideas of liberty and individual rights. The conflict saw a radical shift in social relationships that came to support a free-market capitalist system (away from feudalism). In 1648, the army purged Parliament of its conservative members, executed King Charles I (1600–1649), and installed Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) to rule over Parliament from 1653–1658.

Although the monarchy was restored in 1660 with Charles I, the English Civil War realized the rise of parliamentary supremacy over the Crown, the idea that careers are open to talent not guaranteed by heritage, the protection of private property (which supported the rise of mercantilism and capitalism), religious tolerance, and aggressive internationalism. The levellers and diggers supported public freedom. The levellers and diggers were groups advocating for political freedom and equality during this time. They disseminated their ideas through pamphlets, championing concepts of social justice and democratic governance.

The English Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the principles of the two founding documents of England's constitutional monarchy: the Magna Carta (1215) and the Petition of Right (1628). With its passage, Parliament supported the rule of law and civil rights and declared that it alone (not the Crown) had the authority to levy taxes, raise an army, and wage wars. The King and other government officials were answerable to the people. The Bill also required regular parliamentary meetings, free elections, freedom of speech in Parliament, prohibitions against cruel and unusual punishment, and declared that judges would be independent of the monarchy.

The Toleration Act of 1689 supported freedom of worship for Protestants but excluded Catholics, antitrinitarians, and atheists from its provisions. John Locke (1632–1704), the English philosopher, feared Catholicism would take over England and argued for religious freedom in his Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). In the letter he argued that the government should promote external, not spiritual welfare, and not dictate religious choice. Locke paved the way for the American idea of the separation of church and state, which was important because the church often used its power to exclude nonbelievers, restrict scientific thought and creativity, and hamper commercial enterprise.

With the English Bill of Rights (1689), the English Parliament proclaimed the government a constitutional monarchy where the monarch's powers are limited by the country's written and unwritten constitution. The farmers of the U.S. Constitution would incorporate many of these same principles and elements in the American founding documents 100 years later.

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1d. Explain how the Enlightenment philosophers contributed to our understanding of revolution

Can you explain the main ideas of Max Weber, Emmanuel Kent, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Nicolas de Condorcet?
How did the Enlightenment redefine the relationship between people and the state?
What is the concept of the divine right of kings?
How did the Enlightenment directly inspire political and social revolution?
Why were many modern revolutions attracted to the ideals of the Enlightenment?
Who were some key Enlightenment philosophers?
What was the impact of Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Nicolas de Condorcet?
What is the Social Contract?

The Enlightenment influenced how philosophers, intellectuals, and political activists viewed the role of the citizen in the state and the relationship between the government and its people. European governance had been based on the divine right of kings, the belief that God had ordained the monarch with absolute authority. During the Enlightenment, philosophers began to question the legitimacy of monarchy and vested more importance in the power of the people. This shift prompted revolutionary leaders to challenge the state's authority, overthrow it, and form new governments.

Enlightenment thinkers impacted the development of Europe and the Americas in six ways:

They weakened the hold of traditional religion as a public institution;
They promoted a secular code of ethics;
They developed a critical spirit of analysis that did not accept routine tradition and hierarchies;
They were curious about history and believed in progress;
They differentiated absolutism from despotism; and
They disrespected monarchy and heaped abuse on unjustified privilege.

The Thirty Years War (1618–1648) led many members of the nobility and upper classes to support the monarchy and absolute rule in exchange for a restoration of public order, protection against popular insurrection and peasant uprisings, and the recognition of noble privilege. However, the English and Dutch parliaments refused to be ignored. These countries had a growing, influential, commercial middle class, many property owners, a strong urban population, a small nobility, and a decentralized police force and army. They resisted the power of the Catholic church based in Rome in favor of local control.

The 1700s witnessed the rise of capitalism, industrialization, secularization, and fundamental changes in class structure. Throughout this period, exploration and colonialism allowed capital to accumulate in Western Europe to help fuel investment in the industrial revolution. By the end of the 18th century, thought had transformed, and "historical ways of understanding" replaced the "classical explanation of the order of things in terms of taxonomies".

Max Weber (1864–1920) argued that before the rise of the modern state, the king had to share a legitimate use of violence or force with the church; one of the defining features of the modern state is that it alone can exert legitimate coercive force. This legitimacy of violence functions within the geographical territory of the nation-state.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the German philosopher, encouraged individuals to think for themselves rather than exhibit blind obedience to political authority. Kant wrote that Enlightenment is built on man's ability to use his own reason, which takes courage. He argued that most people reject Enlightenment out of cowardice and laziness: they are unwilling to break away from the domination of others, particularly church leaders, government officials, and educators. Domination by these powerful people restricts one's individual freedom. Kant believed he did not live in an enlightened age but an age moving toward Enlightenment and that people would gradually learn to think for themselves over time.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), the Swiss philosopher, wrote The Social Contract, which argued that humans are born free but coerced into economic and social dependence. Political and social covenants should restore this lost freedom. Rousseau believed that legitimate civil authority is only derived from civil contracts, which both sides enter freely. In other words, to be legitimate, citizens must enter a civil contract with a government willingly. In this civil society, each individual works for their own best interest. Collectively, these individual wills support and benefit the general will, which Rousseau called "the sovereign". In this system, the will of the majority rules. Each person who enters this social contract agrees to abide by laws the government passes, even when they disagree with them.

Nicolas de Condorcet (1743–1794), the French philosopher and mathematician, believed continual progress led toward the perfection of humankind. He argued that the progress the Enlightenment promoted, especially in science and social thought, would lead to an increasingly perfect human state. Understanding health, wealth creation, and industry would eventually eliminate disease, poverty, and suffering. Through knowledge, humans are capable of unlimited progress.

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1e. Compare revolts, coup d'états, mass uprisings, and revolutions

How do mass uprisings, coup d'états, rebellions, revolts, and revolutions differ and how are they similar?

A mass uprising occurs when a local population protests or resists their government, in a relatively spontaneous manner, often in violence. Participants are less concerned about planning changes to the societal structure than other types of political rebellion. Examples of mass uprisings include the German Peasant Rebellion from 1524 to 1525 and the Sioux Ghost Dance of 1890.

Social elites typically initiate coup d'états. These highly-organized affairs may or may not have popular support. For example, during a military coup, chosen military staff may suddenly replace political leaders with a violent revolt, such as the coup d'état in 1952 when Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew Egypt's King Farouk.

Rebellions combine aspects of mass uprisings and coups. They involve large numbers of participants and a high degree of planning and organization. The leaders typically have a clear vision for the future and enlist action from a large percentage of the population. Examples include the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1956.

Revolutions can begin as rebellions, coup d'états, or mass uprisings. However, not all rebellions, coups, or mass uprisings are revolutions. Often, mass uprisings are brief, sometimes violent, and can lead to minor changes; they usually do not result in lasting political change. Rebellions are similar; they can and sometimes do inspire change, but they do not overhaul or change a system as a revolution does. Coups are started and executed by elites for the express purpose of seizing power. They often result in regime changes but do not have the same political, social, or cultural impact as a revolution.

Revolutions can take on many forms, from political to cultural to scientific, technological, and social. During social revolutions, such as the agricultural, industrial, and scientific revolutions, new ideas and discoveries challenge prevailing thought, traditions, and behaviors. These revolts often take much longer to play out than political revolutions. Nevertheless, they can still disrupt the fabric of society with fundamental structural change brought about by class struggle, scientific advancement, and technological change.

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Unit 1 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

Age of Reason
Alex de Tocqueville
Benedict Anderson
Chalmers Johnson
class conflict
communism
constitutional monarchy
coup d'états
Crane Brinton
diggers
disequilibrium
divine right of kings
English Bill of Rights
English Civil War
Enlightenment
Immanuel Kant
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
John Locke
Karl Marx
Letter Concerning Toleration
levellers
Magna Carta
mass uprising
Max Weber
Nicolas de Condorcet
Oliver Cromwell
Petition of Right
political revolutions
rebellions
revolts
rule of law
Samuel Huntington
Social Contract
social equilibrium
social revolutions
Thirty Years War
Toleration Act of 1689