BUS631: Brand Management

The model of information experience on brand pages

The proposed model of information experience on brand pages is presented in Fig. 1. It explains the process of one's information experiences on a brand page leading to engagement intentions toward the brand page. This model was developed by drawing on the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions and the control–value theory of achievement emotions. Cognitive appraisals of emotions are well-developed in psychology, asserting that an individual's appraisal of an event plays a key role in the elicitation and differentiation of emotional experiences. Applying the cognitive appraisal approach to achievement settings, the control–value theory of achievement emotions posits that the appraisals of control and values induce emotions, which then play a role in facilitating cognitive performances and consequent behavioral outcomes. Both theories emphasize the central role of emotions in one's thinking process and performances and have been empirically supported in various settings.

Fig. 1 The proposed model

In an attempt to elucidate one's information experience, van der Sluis applied these appraisal theories of emotions to the context of information systems, developing a model of Information eXperience (IX). In line with the notion that one's information experience is subjective and intimately related to emotions, the model of IX suggests that one's information experience consists of value appraisals, affective states (positive emotions), and experiential states. Specifically, the model of IX describes that if and, if so, how much instrumental and non-instrumental values information objects offer determine the user's affective states, which consequently affect their experiential states during the experience. Theories of cognitive appraisal of emotion and the control–value theory of achievement emotions corroborate the model of IX although the model has not been empirically tested yet. The former highlight the role of cognitive appraisals in the arousal of emotions and cognitive outcomes, and the latter concur that appraisal antecedes emotions, cognitive outcomes, and behaviors in one's information experience. The theories together support the belief model that perceived values related to cognitive appraisals of an object induce emotions, which then facilitate cognitive processes of the object. Applying the model of information-centric experiences to consumer interactions with information on brand pages enables us to find new insights relevant to consumer behavior in response to fashion brands' social media marketing.

Perceived values

Perceived value, an important concept in studies of consumer behavior, refers to an individual's subjective preferential experience that results from an interaction between the individual and an object. Values are considered multifaceted, mainly encompassing two aspects: the extrinsic/utilitarian/instrumental and the intrinsic/hedonic/non-instrumental values. Extrinsic/utilitarian/instrumental values concern practical and functional aspects of interactive objects and/or interactive processes. They are associated with the extent to which an interactive object is useful based on its rational and cognitive aspects. Contrary to utilitarian values, intrinsic/hedonic/non-instrumental values are related to hedonically rewarding experiences during the interaction with an object. They are derived from the subjective assessment of experiential benefits, such as having fun and enjoyable experiences. Given that users take into account information of instrumental as well as non-instrumental relevance, this study captures the extrinsic/utilitarian/instrumental and intrinsic/hedonic/non-instrumental values of a user's information interaction on a brand page by means of perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment, respectively. Previous research has confirmed that users' perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment are key motivators for people to consume and use social media.

Perceived usefulness is defined as "the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance". Mainly determined based on rational and cognitive assessments of an object, perceived usefulness is essential to information experiences in that if the information system does not provide users with useful information, there is no need for users to interact with the system. The usefulness that the information interaction brings to the user relates to practical and functional aspects of information experiences on brand pages. In this study, perceived usefulness refers to the extent to which a user perceives their interactions with information on a brand page to be relevant and helpful.

Perceived enjoyment is defined as "the extent to which the activity of using the computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated". The non-instrumental and hedonic value is critical in users' experiences with interactive products and human–computer interactions (HCIs) because the value can satisfy basic human needs. Consumer behavior research has proven that perceived enjoyment is hedonically rewarding experiences with information. This study defines perceived enjoyment as the degree to which a user perceives their information interactions with a brand page to be fun and entertaining.

Affective responses: positive emotions

Emotions are defined as "mental states of readiness that arise from appraisals of events of one's own thoughts". This study focuses on positive emotions to examine affective responses to a user's information experience. The literature indicates that positive emotion arises when an evaluation of an action is consistent with attaining one's goals. Cognitive appraisal theories of emotions assert that one's cognitive appraisals of an activity play a key role in eliciting and differentiating between emotional experiences. In a similar vein, the control–value theory of achievement emotions supports the impact of one's appraisals of values on the arousal of emotions in the context of learning. The model of IX also suggests that when an activity or an information interaction is perceived to be relevant, values, such as usefulness and enjoyment, induce positive emotions. In a brand page environment, for example, when consumers look for new product information and find the right product accompanied by a 10% discount on the brand page, this instance would provoke positive emotions. Therefore, it is expected that as a consumer perceives greater value in terms of usefulness and enjoyment during their interactions with information on brand pages, more pleasant emotions will arise.

Hypothesis 1

Perceived values involved in information interactions (a: usefulness, b: enjoyment) on a brand page positively influence positive emotions.

Experiential states: satisfaction, cognitive engagement, and elaboration

Positive emotions that arise by values perceived during the information interaction further encourage favorable mental states. Among numerous mental states that can arise during information interactions (such as motivational, cognitive, and regulatory processes), positive emotions particularly stimulate intrinsic motivation leading to self-satisfaction, cognitive resources increasing cognitive engagement, and meta-cognitive and elaborating strategies. Similarly, van der Sluis conceptualizes three prototypical experiences pertinent to information experiences: positive, cognitively engaging, and elaborative experiences. First, a satisfying and positive experience is key to the overall success of interaction systems. As the primary construct of positive experiences in a certain situation, satisfaction is a targeted and integrated experience of information interactions. Second, a cognitively engaging experience refers to a highly concentrated and absorbed mental state while undertaking an activity. Third, an elaboration experience, involving a user's effortful, thoughtful, and conscious processing of information, is different from the other two in that this experiential state reflects the meta-cognitive processing of the experience. In sum, this study focuses on satisfaction, cognitive engagement, and elaboration to examine one's experiential states during an information interaction on a brand page.

Satisfaction

Consumers tend to be satisfied when the outcomes of their consumption behaviors meet or exceed their expectations. Satisfaction, although related to emotions, is distinct in that satisfaction is dependent on the (dis)confirmation between one's expectations and the performance of an object. A rich body of research has shown that positive emotions evoked by consumption experiences influence satisfaction. In a brand page environment, positive emotions stemming from information interactions will foster satisfaction with the overall interaction experience.

Cognitive engagement

To be cognitively engaged means "to be involved, occupied, and interested in something". Cognitive engagement enhances learning, exploratory behavior, and task performance and allows users to be absorbed and engrossed in an activity. Positive emotions evoked by cognitive appraisals facilitate cognitive and motivational processes and learning. Prior studies have supported the pervasive role of positive emotions in enhancing cognitive engagement in learning environments. When users feel happy during information interactions, such feelings increase their willingness to put more effort into the interaction to further scrutinize the information.

Elaboration

Elaboration, defined as a "process of relating semantic information from the target event to other aspects of the individual's knowledge", is an important predictor of self-regulated learning experiences. Elaboration occurs when individuals focus on the information, categorize attributes of the information, and make associations with other pieces of information in their minds. Emotions, whether they are positive or negative, influence one's motivation, elaboration, and critical thinking. Positive feelings allow individuals to think creatively and be flexible and open-minded, stimulating more global processing as they enable people to activate working memory, develop creative problem-solving, and integrate different resources to organize their thoughts. Thus, how one feels during an information interaction will affect elaboration. In the context of information interactions on brand pages, individuals not only scrutinize details of information on a brand page but also compare the information with their own personal experiences. Based on the literature, it is expected that positive emotions will positively facilitate elaboration.

Hypothesis 2

Positive emotions enhance experiential states (a: satisfaction, b: cognitive engagement, c: elaboration) on a brand page.

Brand page engagement intentions

Consumer engagement intentions are widely examined as a proxy for the success of the brand's marketing strategies, such as a brand page on social media. Brand page engagement intentions are defined as the likelihood of continued consumer interactions with brand pages on social media. Engagement has been proven to manifest various forms of positive behaviors beyond transactions, such as customer loyalty, word-of-mouth, co-creation, sharing opinions and content, and assisting other consumers. Particularly, studies have verified the significant role of consumer engagement in the success of technology-mediated environments where engagement drives favorable behavioral intentions toward the brand, such as word-of-mouth, purchase intention, brand loyalty, and brand equity. Thus, fostering consumer engagement with a brand page is critical to the success of the brand's social networking sites and the brand as a whole.

A variety of information sources in social media, such as brand postings and other consumers' comments, contribute to perceptions of information value. Consumer experiences of high-quality information that help consumers stay up-to-date with a brand and its products, learn new things, and solve their own problems is one of the major motivators for using and continuing to use a brand's social media. Thus, pleasant and engaging experiences with information on brand pages enhance consumers' willingness to engage with the brand pages. Even momentary positive experiences with a brand page promote engagement intentions. Based on the literature, it is reasonable to expect that consumers' experiential states aroused during the information interaction on brand pages will affect engagement intentions toward the brand pages.

Hypothesis 3

Experiential states (a: satisfaction, b: cognitive engagement, c: elaboration) positively influence engagement intentions.

Curiosity as a moderator

The degree to which an individual feels curious plays a role in their information processing and emotional responses toward stimulation. Curiosity reflects an "appetitive state involving the recognition, pursuit, and intense desire to investigate novel information and experiences that demand one's attention". The power of curiosity in driving information processing and consumer behavior in digital environments is well established. Curiosity is especially relevant in social media  because information-seeking and exploring contents from brands and others are a key driver for accessing brand pages on social media.

Curiosity affects consumer behavior by prompting a desire for information, even in the absence of external reward, attention, and exploration, thereby enhancing engagement with and the performance of tasks. Moreover, curious people tend to sense an information gap and try to mitigate the discrepancy and/or uncertainty this gap causes by seeking additional information. That is, curiosity engenders information-seeking and goal pursuit. Likewise, curiosity interacts with positive and pleasant feelings and energy so that this source of intrinsic motivation magnifies positive feelings of interest and arousal while making individuals better able to cope with emotional distress. As such, the degree of an individual's curiosity is likely to have an impact on their experiences with information on a brand page. Curiosity in this study refers to the extent to which one perceives themselves to be inquisitive when they interact with information on brand pages.

Curious individuals tend to be highly involved in their current situations and feel positive toward stimulation. Perceptions of curiosity from interacting with new information of personal interest (e.g., new fashion trends or co-creation opportunities) can function as an intrinsic reward and thus heighten feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. These intrinsically rewarded efforts facilitate pleasant feelings when the activity itself is interesting, enjoyable, and useful to the consumers, since the process provokes their curiosity. Accordingly, it is expected that perceived curiosity moderates the effects of perceived values on positive emotions aroused during information interactions on brand pages.

Hypothesis 4

Perceived curiosity moderates the relationship between the perceived values of information interactions and positive emotions experienced on a brand page. That is, compared to low curiosity, high curiosity strengthens the positive effects of perceived values on positive emotions (a: usefulness, b: enjoyment).