ENGL210: Technical Writing

4a. Distinguish between different formats of visuals

• Define some common visual formats, such as tables, line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, flowcharts, and organizational charts.
• When is it appropriate to use these different formats?
• Define some common representational illustrations, such as photographs, screenshots, drawings, diagrams, and schematics.

Visuals are graphical representations of information used to summarize, highlight, or expand on data, numerical or otherwise, in your text. The standard "rule of thumb" is to avoid duplicating text and graphic information: use visuals to replace or expand on the text.

If your written information lends itself to graphical depiction, use a graphic to minimize your written text. If your text is descriptive enough and provides sufficient information to the reader, you may not need to include a graphic. However, if your visual completely covers the main points of your topic, you only need to provide minimal descriptive text.

 

Tables

A table is a visual format comprised of rows and columns of data (words or numbers). Tables are not the most engaging visual format, but they allow readers to access your data to make quick and easy comparisons. Writers often use tables to convey numerical data.

Use a table to detail or summarize several aspects of a category, such as to compare measurements or dimensions of different products, or show trends or patterns, such as rising or falling activity. While it can be time-consuming to read a table, they do provide a lot of information.

 

Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs allow you to present the same data you have in a table in a more engaging and dramatic way, although with less detail and precision. Rather than using rows and columns, you can represent data in a line, bar graph, pie chart, and employ visually-engaging elements such as color, shading, or solid and dashed lines to convey data and reveal relationships between data points.

Use a chart or graph if you do not need to provide as much detailed information as in a table, such as when you only need to identify relationships among data points or portray a data trend. It is usually easier for your reader to see key relationships in the data you highlight in a chart or graph. But it is easier to pinpoint specific data points in a table.

 

Line Graphs

A line graph shows a line that joins several points, to present a relationship or trend among them. Notice that the line does not have to be straight, but can curve. Use this format to compare two items, such as two variables counted on the X- and Y-axis.

 

Bar Charts

A bar chart presents the numerical value of different categories or variables. Each category is represented by one bar (depicted by the height or length of the lines or rectangles). The bars for each different category should not touch each other.

Use this format to illustrate numerical or measurable data in a way that is easy to understand and read. But unlike the line graph, you can compare more than two sets of data in a bar chart.

 

Histograms

A histogram is like a bar chart, but the adjacent bars touch each other and almost only use vertical bars. You can use a histogram to illustrate continuous data, or data that has been measured on a continuous numbers scale. Histograms are useful in showing relationships between two different sets of data.

 

Pie Charts

A pie chart is a circular chart that is split into segments to show percentages of categories of data. It shows the relative sizes of the shares, as compared to the whole amount. They are a good method of representation to compare different parts of a group, as compared to the whole (the entire pie).

A key limitation of pie charts is that they can make your data unclear and difficult to interpret when displaying more than six categories. You should use a bar chart if you wish to present more than six categories. As you can see, the following example of a pie chart is tricky to navigate: it is difficult to differentiate and interpret the meaning for each different shade of grey.

 

Flowcharts

A flowchart represents a process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds and their order. They are used to analyze, design, document, or manage a process or program. Often the shape of the box in the flowchart indicates whether the reader has reached the beginning or end of a process, or should take a certain action, such as ask a question or make a decision.

 

Organizational Charts

Many organizations and businesses create organizational charts to show the divisions and subdivisions of their organizational structure. The placement or each group or department illustrates the hierarchy and lines of responsibility, authority, and communication among individuals and groups.

 

Other Types of Visuals

You can use visuals to represent information other than numerical data. If you need to depict objects, places, people, and their relationships, you can use photos and screenshots, drawings, diagrams, and schematics. These visual formats are sometimes called representational illustrations.

Screenshots or screen captures present images of your computer screen's display. They are valuable tools when explaining procedures (especially those involving computer or internet-based tasks).

Drawings are one of the most common visual formats in instructions, since they reduce the details to simple representations, allowing the reader to focus on key details. Use simple line drawings for instructions or product descriptions.

A diagram or schematic goes into much more detail about the object and is useful in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports for an expert audience. They can provide a more detailed drawing with specific measurements and dimensions.

Photographs can provide engaging visuals for non-expert audiences, especially for those comparing products. 

Maps, both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D), can represent many purposes, from simple road maps to help readers visualize complex numerical data.

Review visual formats in Table, Charts, Graphs, More Working with Charts, Graphs and Tables, and Types of Graphical Illustration in Technical Writing.

 

4b. Apply the best practices for integrating visuals into text

• List some basic best practices for integrating visuals into text.
• Name some specific guiding principles for different visual formats.

These are some basic principles of integrating visuals into a text.

• Avoid clutter;
• Orient the image properly;
• Be aware of scale;
• Always verify content;
• Avoid extraneous graphics (only use what is necessary and relevant);
• Explain the information the visual contains and how it will help the reader;
• Give the visual a title or caption, as appropriate; and
• Use internationally-recognized symbols and icons.

For tables:

• Write informative, understandable, and visually-distinct heading labels;
• Make rows distinct through headings or display of categories;
• Avoid wordiness – limit text in cells to a few words;
• Use color coding and symbols to facilitate quick scanning and data comparison; and
• Ensure the table is readable in the display format.

For graphs in general:

• Label axes clearly and identify units of scale or measurement;
• Label axes that do not begin at zero clearly;
• Ensure the graph does not distort or modify the trend;
• Indicate the data source used to construct the graph;
• Explain how the graph supports points discussed in the text; and
• Design for simplicity, avoid overuse of colors and typefaces.

For line graphs:

• Labels and scales should indicate the quantity, magnitude, and range of each axis;
• Key data lines should be heavier than the gridlines; and
• Multiple lines should appear in different colors.

For bar graphs:

• Bar graphs can be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal bar graphs are better for showing magnitude changes, while vertical bar graphs are better for showing trends;
• Bars should be wider than the gaps between them;
• Use different patterns to indicate differences; and
• Label bars clearly.

For charts in general:

• Make sure the chart is consistent with how the audience will view the data;
• Design the chart so it shows one primary idea or specific relationship;
• Keep the chart simple and clear; do not include too much information;
• Use clear and concise labels and titles; do not include too much text;
• Make sure the information is not distorted or misleading; and
• Make sure the chart is read easily from one-page orientation.

For pie charts:

• Sectors must add up to 100 percent;
• Use different colors or fill patterns for adjacent pie sectors; and
• Group small percentage items under a general label, such as "other".

For maps:

• To map sequential data, use gradations of one or two colors to show gradations in the data;
• Use many colors to show differences if applicable; and
• Choose colors readers can distinguish easily from one another.

For illustrations and photographs:

• Keep the visuals as simple as possible, only use color to enhance important information. Two colors is preferred;
• Clearly labeled parts;
• Maintain consistent viewing angle in a series of illustrations;
• Make sure letters and numbers are easily read without having to reorient the book or manual;
• When depicting a process, the flow should read left to right; and
• Measurements, dimensions, and proportions must be accurate.

Review best practices in Types of Graphical Illustration in Technical Writing.

 

4c. Express ethical and legal issues surrounding the use of visuals

• Define copyright, fair use, and the Creative Commons license.
• What copyright considerations should you keep in mind when integrating visuals?
• How can you avoid logical fallacies in your visuals?
• What are the ethical considerations of using Photoshop?

Copyright is a form of protection many countries provide to authors of original works, both published and unpublished. Copyright protection reserves certain exclusive rights to authors of a work, such as the rights of reproduction and public performance.

While authors have strict protections, the law allows certain groups, such as educators, to use and copy copyrighted material without having to obtain permission from the author, as long as you follow certain specific rules, such as fair use.

Fair use is a legal exception to copyright law that allows certain individuals (such as educators) to use copyrighted material for limited, non-commercial purposes such as for commentary, criticism, or parody. You are not required to obtain permission from the copyright owner in these cases. Judges typically consider four factors in determining whether a given use of copyrighted material is fair use that are described in the primer in this unit.

Educational use allows teachers and students at nonprofit educational institutions to use copyrighted materials in face-to-face instruction (such as reading a poem or watching a movie). In distance learning, instructors must make sure the copyrighted content is only shared in an instructional, password-protected, environment (for example, they are not sharing a movie with students for mere entertainment) and that students cannot download or distribute the materials further. Instructors should not make or distribute copies of copyrighted material to their students.

Here are things that cannot be copyrighted:

• Titles, names, short phrases, slogans, familiar symbols, a list of ingredients;
• Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices;
• Works consisting entirely of information that is common property with no original authorship (such as a calendar or tape measure).
• Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form, such as a dance or an improvisational speech that were not recorded or written down;

Common copyright violations to be aware of:

• Posting copyrighted material to your website without permission from the copyright owner, even if it is published elsewhere on the web. It is okay to provide a link to material that resides on another website.
• When students use copyrighted material for an in-class presentation or report, teachers should not publish the report on the school website without permission from the owner of the material.
• Distributing copyrighted resources via email may be a violation.
• Photocopying an article for your own use, or asking students to make copies, is usually okay, but making multiple copies and distributing them to peers or colleagues may not fall under fair use.

It can be difficult to determine whether your use is fair with certainty. To help protect yourself against ethical violations, you can ask the copyright holder for permission to use their material.

Alternatively, many copyright owners grant permission to those who want to use their materials, as long as they give proper attribution to the author, with a Creative Commons license.

Even if you are using copyrighted material in your educational or internal reports under fair use, make sure you cite your source material.

 

Photo Editing Tools

Be aware many editors use computer editing tools, such as Photoshop, to portray images that are not entirely accurate, truthful, or factual. Doctoring photographs, especially in a political or legal context, can be flagrantly unethical and illegal. These practices can also have serious social ramifications, such as when editors modify images in ad campaigns to make models look more lean, beautiful, or strong. These doctored photographs cause viewers to have unrealistic expectations about unattainable social ideals and trends, which may result in decreased self-esteem, and feelings of inadequacy and objectification.

 

Logical Fallacies

Be aware that using logical fallacies, of defects in your reasoning, in your writing, or visual aids can weaken your argument and undermine your credibility. While we typically think of logical fallacies in written arguments, think about how your visuals may contribute to fallacious reasoning.

Keep the following guidelines in mind:

• Use a strong premise, supported by your arguments and evidence;
• Your statements should be true and relevant;
• Your visuals should support your conclusion;
• Your visuals should address the most important or relevant aspects of the issue; and
• Do not make strong or sweeping claims that the evidence in your visuals cannot support.

To review, see Copyright: A Primer, The Ethics of Image Manipulation, and Logical Fallacies.

 

Unit 4 Vocabulary

• Bar Chart/Graph
• Chart
• Copyright
• Creative Commons licence
• Diagram
• Drawing
• Educational Use (copyright)
• Fair Use (copyright)
• Flowchart
• Graph
• Histogram
• Line graph
• Logical fallacies
• Organizational Chart
• Photoshop ethics
• Pie chart
• Representational illustration
• Screenshot
• Schematic
• Table
• Visual/Graphic