ENGL210: Technical Writing

6a. Utilize audience analysis to plan, write and revise a proposal

• How can you use audience analysis to plan a proposal?
• How does the consideration of your audience influence what persuasion principles you use when you write a proposal?
• What are the most important problems to watch out for when revising a proposal?

The basic idea about your proposal's audience is this: you are asking your readers to approve, fund, or grant permission for you or your organization to conduct a project. Your audience is the person or group of people who have the authority and power to make this decision.

Your proposal should include all of the information your audience needs to decide whether they should approve your project, and perhaps hire you to do the work. Put yourself in your audience's shoes as the recipient of the proposal. Think about the sort of information you would need to feel confident about making the decision to assign the project to your group and not to another applicant.

The type of proposal you request will help you analyze your audience and draft an effective document.

There are four kinds of proposals:

1. An internal proposal is to someone within your organization, business, or government agency. Since the document is internal, you may not have to include certain sections, such as qualifications, and other background information.
2. An external proposal is a request you direct to a separate, independent organization or individual, such as an independent consultant who may present a proposal to perform a certain project or service for an organization, business, or government agency.
3. Businesses request solicited proposals when they ask an individual or group to submit a proposal or bid on a work contract or work assignment. Companies and government agencies often solicit requests for proposals (RFPs). For example, a company that needs to upgrade its computer network may write an RFP that invites outside groups to bid on the contract. The RFP lists the requirements, expectations, and timeframe for the job. The work may involve conducting research or buying and installing new equipment.
4. Unsolicited proposals are not requested. Companies or individuals that present unsolicited proposals may have to convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before they can begin to explain what it will take to fix the problem.

Depending on the needs and expectations of your audience, you can use several persuasion strategies when you make a proposal.

• Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for the exchange of value or service. When someone gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if only by saying "thank you". The giver has power and influence over the receiver, but the moment may be lost if the giver dismisses the exchange as irrelevant. In business, this principle has several applications. When you go out of your way to meet a customer's needs, you appeal to this principle of reciprocity and may increase the likelihood that your customer will make a purchase because you were especially helpful. You build a relationship based on trust and reinforce personal and brand loyalty.
• Scarcity refers to the perception of inadequate supply or limited resources. People are often attracted to items that are exclusive or unique and motivated to buy rare items they fear they will miss out on if they wait too long. As a salesperson you might convince your customers to close the sale and shift from contemplation to action by reminding them that they stand to gain by making a purchase, and could lose out if they do not.
• The principle of authority refers to the trust customers have in experts when making a purchasing decision. Customers may turn to the salesperson for advice, but an endorsement from an outside authority lends more credibility than someone who has a vested interest in making the sale. As a salesperson, you can increase your authority by showing your knowledge about the product, field, trends, and outside research. You can also build credibility by revealing what outside experts have to say about the product, service, market, or trends, and your awareness of competing viewpoints.
• The principle of commitment and consistency refers to the need to follow through on promises in a consistent way. We are more likely to act on promises that are written down and signed; our memory can be faulty and it can be difficult to recall details of an oral commitment. As a salesperson, you should create a written letter of agreement or contract to ensure each party understands the promises they have made, and the expectations they have, at the moment of purchase.
• The principle of consensus refers to our tendency to follow our peers to fit in with the group. We often look to each other when making a purchase decision: it must be great if everybody else thinks so. We are more inclined to "follow the herd" when we lack adequate information about a product. As a salesperson, you might leverage testimonials from your clients to attract other buyers and partners who need someone to convince them to buy your product. 
• The principle of liking involves a perception of safety and belonging. We are more likely to interact and communicate when we feel safe. We are often attracted to people who tell us they like us and who make us feel good about ourselves. We are also often drawn to those who look and act like us, or who we perceive ourselves to be. Unfortunately, we can make costly mistakes when we make judgments about the people we like or want to work with when we base our judgments on external characteristics, such as dress, age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. 

As you reread and revise your proposal, keep in mind that your proposal is a professional document. It should be accurate, concise, credible, and relevant. It should include references where appropriate, and be free of spelling or grammatical errors.

It should be printed on letterhead and include your contact information. Make sure documents submitted electronically, appear as you intend, regardless of screen size, such as in a .pdf format.

Specifically, watch out for the following problems:

• Use a memo format for internal proposals and a business-letter format for external proposals. 
• Address your proposal to the right, decision-making audience.
• Identify exactly what you propose to do, and when.
• Include the creation of a written report to document your progress.
• Sections should follow in a logical order. For example, sell your audience on the rationale, purpose, and need for your project, before you present time schedules and costs.
• Provide specific details in the cost section, such as the number of staff required and their hourly rates, rather than one lump sum for the entire project.
• Include direct and indirect costs and qualifications, even for internal projects, such as administrative and maintenance expenses. Imagine someone you do not know will review your proposal.
• Exclude technical or scientific jargon: write for nonspecialists since some reviewers may be unfamiliar with specialized technical language.
• Try to be as brief and succinct as possible.

To review, see Proposals, Principles of Persuasion, and Business Proposal.

 

6b. Format and organize a written proposal

• What are the common sections in proposals?
• How are proposals typically formatted?

Most grants and business proposal documents have the following sections. Remember that it is essentially a sales or promotional document. When organizing a proposal, take the following steps:

1. Introduce the proposal, its purpose, and contents.
2. Present the background to the problem and the need to find a solution. Get your reader concerned about the problem and excited about the opportunity to fix it.
3. Explain what your project will do to correct the problem and how you will help your funder take advantage of the opportunity that exists.
4. Explain the benefits and advantages that will result from a decision to approve the project.
5. Explain exactly how the completed project will look. How will it work? What will result?
6. Detail your method, theory, and approach.
7. Provide a schedule, major milestones, and checkpoints.
8. List your qualifications, such as with a mini-resume of your background.
9. Outline the costs of the project and the resources you will need to accomplish your goals.
10. Conclude with a pointed review of the benefits that will result from the project. Encourage your audience to contact you with any questions, and to accept your proposal.

The introduction should indicate your document is a proposal, explain exactly what you are proposing, and provide a brief overview of its contents. Be sure to refer to any previous contact you have had with the proposal recipient or your information source about the project. It may help to include a brief motivational statement to encourage the recipient to read on, consider funding the project, and contract you to do the work. 

The background section describes why the project is needed: What is the problem? What opportunity exists to improve things? What is the basic situation? This section may be short if your audience knows the problem well, but your words will demonstrate your perspective on the problem. If the proposal is unsolicited, this section is a necessary component: you need to convince your audience that a problem exists and that they need your help to take advantage of an opportunity to fix it.

Most proposals list the advantages and benefits of supporting your proposal. What arguments can you summon that point to a need to support your project and how likely is it to succeed? This section is especially important for an unsolicited proposal; you must "sell" your audience on the need to support your project.

Describe the finished product of your proposal. Outline the written document you will write if your proposal is chosen, the audience and purpose, and the length, graphics, and binding for the final report. Additional work may include conducting training seminars, creating and distributing promotional materials, or providing an ongoing service.

Explain how you will accomplish your proposed work. This persuasive element demonstrates you have a sound, thoughtful, and comprehensive approach. It also provides additional background, as needed. Note that your background section focused on the problem and need. This section provides technical details about your procedures, methodology, and technology you plan to use. It should help build confidence among your readers that you have expertise in this area.

Detail the projected completion date, key project milestones, and the dates when you will deliver progress reports. If you cannot cite specific dates, estimate the amount of time needed for each phase of the project.

Summarize your qualifications for completing the proposed work (as an individual or organization). Your readers will use this targeted mini-resume to decide whether you are suited for the project. List your work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows familiarity with the project.

Detail internal and external project costs. You may need to list your hourly rate, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, administrative costs, and maintenance if needed, to calculate the total cost of the complete project.

The final paragraph or section should refocus your reader's attention to the positive aspects of your work (you have just shown them the costs). Encourage them to contact you to ask questions and clarify any details. Remind them of the benefits you bring. You and your organization are the right choices for the project.

As you finalize your proposal, consider your formatting and packaging options: use a memo format for internal proposals and a business-letter format for external proposals.

Internal proposals should include a cover letter or memo, attached to your separate proposal. The cover letter or memo briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents. It should resemble your introduction for the proposal itself.

Format external proposals as a consolidated business-letter or memo proposal. Include headings and other special formatting elements, as in a typical business report. 

To review, see Proposals.

 

Unit 6 Vocabulary

• Authority (persuasion technique)
• Background (proposal section)
• Benefits (proposal section)
• Commitment and Consistency (persuasion technique)
• Consensus (persuasion technique)
• External proposal
• Internal proposal
• Liking (persuasion technique)
• Reciprocity (persuasion technique)
• Scarcity (persuasion technique)
• Solicited proposal
• Unsolicited proposal