POLSC401: Ethics and Public Policy

2a. Identify key ethicists and the theories of their work

• Define virtue ethics, deontology, utilitarianism, and the fairness approach.
• Explain why Plato and Aristotle believed that virtue ethics promote human flourishing (eudaimonia) or living a good life?
• Which ethical framework does Immanuel Kant use?
• Define, the good will, maxim and the categorical imperative.
• Which key thinkers best embodies the utilitarian approach?
• Define and compare hedonistic and idealistic utilitarianism.
• Define John Rawls's concept of justice as fairness and the original position.
• Describe the argument John Rawls used to defend his concept the fairness approach?

There are several approaches to ethics and this unit covers some major ethical frameworks, such as virtue ethics, deontology, utilitarianism, and the fairness approach. We can differentiate these schools of thought by exploring their highest goal for an ethical system.

Virtue Ethics

Plato (c. 423–348 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC), the Greek philosophers, examined what it means to live virtuously, or in ways that will promote human flourishing (eudaimonia) or living a good life. These thinkers provided the foundation for what we call virtue ethics.

Aristotle considered courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom the most important virtues. Likewise, cultivating one's character involves learning to avoid the opposing vices: cowardice (or brashness), injustice, intemperance, and ignorance. These theories about virtue focus on the development and state of one's character. So, rather than simply learn moral rules, the virtue theorist focuses on learning to become a moral person, to develop a virtuous character.

Deontology

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the German philosopher, believed that issues of morality depend on our intentions rather than the consequences of our actions. Even if we are completely ineffective in our efforts to do good, the good will is praiseworthy in itself. In other words, our intention is more important than the outcome. Kant uses the word, maxim, to identify the intentions or principles we use to guide our actions. For example, "Always put others first" or "Do whatever it takes to get ahead." People follow maxims to help them choose an appropriate action or response.

Kant's categorical imperative is about acting according to the right maxims. The morally-correct maxims are those which accord with our duty, rather than our inclinations. Kant ultimately claims that an action is morally correct, not only if it aligns with our duty, but if we do it for the sake of duty.

We derive the term, deontology from the Greek word for duty, deos. Deontological ethics is based on duty. Since Kant based his ethics solely in the concept of duty, or "doing the right thing," rather than consequences, his ethical theory provides the main foundation of deontological ethics. 

The maxim to do our duty, or do what is right, is the morally-correct action. We should not only act in the right way, we need to do so for the right reason. Kant believes that any being that has reason is a person and deserves a certain dignity. This dignity means a human being is an end-in-themselves, and not merely a useful tool for some other purpose, or as Kant describes it, "not merely as a means."

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the English philosopher, was the first major philosopher to espouse the principle of utility and utilitarianism. He examined the moral consequences of our actions in addition to the intrinsic quality of the act.

Bentham believed that the right thing to do, individually and collectively, is to maximize the balance of pleasure over pain, and happiness over suffering, to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. He stated that it is preferable to act in ways that uphold "the greatest benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness ... to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness."

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), also an English philosopher, and Jeremy Bentham were both utilitarians, but they had different ideas about the specifics of utilitarianism. We could describe Bentham as a hedonistic utilitarian, and John Stuart Mill as an idealistic utilitarian, because Mill believed some pleasures are higher and more ethical than others.

Justice as Fairness

John Rawls (1921–2002), the American moral and political philosopher, argued that utilitarianism is incompatible with the democratic values of freedom and equal rights, and created a theory of justice based on the idea of a social contract between citizens and their government. He presented his concept of justice as fairness, the basis for a liberal and egalitarian society, in his book, A Theory of Justice.

The first principle is that everyone in society should be granted equal rights and basic human liberties. The second principle places certain restrictions on social and economic inequalities: 1. everyone should receive equal opportunity to attain any position; and 2. any inequalities should grant the "greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society."

Rawls defends his arguments with a hypothetical, social contract-type thought experiment, which he calls the original position, in which free, equal, rational, and unbiased individuals receive the opportunity to create the best possible society for themselves and everyone else. When given the choice, people living in the original position will choose to live in conditions of justice as fairness.

Review the video Five Ways to Think Ethically and follow up article A Framework for Ethical Decision Making from Santa Clara University.

Review these articles on the five ethical frameworks: Ethics and Virtue (virtue ethics), Rights (deontology), Calculating Consequences: The Utilitarian Approach to Ethics (utilitarianism), The Common Good (the common good or communitarianism), and Justice and Fairness (justice as fairness approach), by Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J. and Michael J. Meyer.

Review this lecture on Immanuel Kant's approach in Mind Your Motive by Michael Sandel, and Act in Accordance with Universal Law by Immanuel Kant.

Review this lecture on utilitarianism in Putting a Price Tag on Life/How to Measure Pleasure by Michael Sandel.

Review this lecture on the fairness or justice approach in A Lesson in Lying/A Deal is a Deal by Michael Sandel, and Rawls: The Original Position by John Kilcullen.

2b. Explain several frameworks for ethical decision making

• What is the ultimate goal of virtue ethics? 
• How does utilitarianism differ from the fairness approach to ethics?
• Define the common good or communitarian approach.
• What practical value does the common good approach seek to bring to ethical decisions?

The virtue approach focuses on the motivation of the actor, rather than the consequence. We should act in ways that align with our ideal virtues and provide for the full development of our humanity. These virtues include our society's ideal representation of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. "What kind of person will I become if I do this?" or "Is this action consistent with my acting at my best?"

The rights approach which focuses on maximizing access to human rights across the world, is the youngest of these schools of thought. This approach builds on Kant's argument that we have a duty to treat everyone with dignity because everyone is an end-in-themselves, or, as Kant would say, "not merely as a means."

The utilitarian approach focuses on consequences of actions rather than our motivation. A utilitarian should make a pleasure calculus and support the actions or activities that promote the most good and pleasure for the greatest number of people, and oppose actions or activities that cause them harm or pain. For a utilitarian, the end or final result justifies the means.

The fairness approach seeks to ensure that resources are distributed according to a sense of justice and fairness. For example, this approach wants to make sure workers are treated fairly, women receive equal pay for equal work, and that social status does not determine one's economic success.

The common good or communitarian approach seeks to maximize the value of the resources, spaces, and goods that positively impact the entire community. We should act in ways that reflect compassion and respect for others (especially the vulnerable), because supporting the community is good in itself. This ethical framework contains elements of utilitarianism, deontology and the fairness approach.

Review the video Five Ways to Think Ethically and follow up article A Framework for Ethical Decision Making from Santa Clara University; 

Review these articles on the five ethical frameworks: Ethics and Virtue (virtue ethics), Rights (deontology), Calculating Consequences: The Utilitarian Approach to Ethics (utilitarianism), The Common Good (the common good or communitarianism), and Justice and Fairness (justice as fairness approach), by Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J. and Michael J. Meyer.

Review this lecture on Immanuel Kant's approach in Mind Your Motive by Michael Sandel;

Act in Accordance with Universal Law by Immanuel Kant; 

Review Communitarianism by Daniel Bell; Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill; and Rawls: The Original Position by John Kilcullen.

2c. Discuss the application of these ethical frameworks to dilemmas seen by government policymakers

• Describe how government policymakers have used virtue ethics, deontological ethics, utilitarianism, and the fairness approach when making decisions and public policy. 
• What is the relationship between each ethical framework and public policy in the 21st century?

Individuals who work in government use their own personal ethical framework to make public policy decisions every day. Sometimes they base their decisions on their own ethical beliefs. At other times, their chain of command or the law dictates the specific framework they should use.

Regardless, it is impossible to make public policy choices without relying on some sort of ethical principles. Consequently, those who elect these public officials should try to understand what their government leaders value and the guiding principles they use to make public policy.

Review two different approaches to the same question: What is the Common Good from Fox News and What is the Common Good from the Center for American Progress; Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals by Immanuel Kant; Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremy Bentham; and Rawls and the Original Position by John Kilcullen.

Unit 2 Vocabulary

• Aristotle
• Categorical imperative
• Common good 
• Communitarianism
• Deontology
• Deontological ethics
• Eudaimonia
• Fairness approach
• Hedonistic utilitarian
• Human flourishing
• Idealistic utilitarian
• Immanuel Kant
• Jeremey Bentham
• John Rawls
• John Stuart Mill
• Living the good life
• Maxim
• Original position
• Plato
• Pleasure calculus
• Rights approach
• The good will
• Utilitarianism
• Virtue ethics