BUS603: Managing People

Given the heterogeneous strands of research on mindfulness, definitions of the construct vary. However, most definitions share two key elements: attention and acceptance. Specifically, with regard to these key elements, mindfulness means fully paying attention to what is happening in the present moment, both to internal (i.e., emotions and thoughts) and external stimuli with an open, non-judging attitude. Accordingly, Baer defined mindfulness as "the non-judgmental observation of the ongoing stream of internal and external stimuli as they arise". At this point, however, it is important to emphasize that the non-judgmental aspect of mindfulness does not imply that mindful individuals do not make any judgments at all. It rather refers to the ability to pay attention and to equanimously observe the current experience instead of getting carried away by their own immediate reactions. Thus, the non-judgmental attitude should not be misunderstood as being indifferent or aloof, but it describes a form of equanimity which allows individuals to act cautiously instead of react reflexively. In connection with this, a key process of mindfulness, postulated by various scholars, is the ability to mentally "step back" from one's own experiences which allows an individual "to observe rather than to identify with thoughts and emotions". This process has been labeled as reperceiving or decentering, both referring to a shift of perspective leading to the experience of thoughts and emotions as transient mental states and not as aspects of the self.

The conceptual roots of mindfulness are usually ascribed to centuries-old eastern and Buddhist contemplative traditions and a large body of research is still influenced by a Buddhist understanding of mindfulness. Some scholars even doubt whether it is suitable, in general, to investigate mindfulness detached from mindfulness practice and its cultural roots. They object that the current approaches in Western psychology and the conceptualization of mindfulness as a bare, non-judgmental awareness of the current experience do not fully live up to the true nature and complexity of the "original" Buddhist concept of mindfulness. However, this criticism is countered by a growing body of research that views mindfulness as "an inherent human capacity" varying between and within individuals, which can be investigated detached from Buddhism and mindfulness practice. Related to this, it is helpful to know that mindfulness has been studied from both a state- and a trait-perspective, depending on the research focus. Scholars have used the term state mindfulness for the extent to which an individual is paying attention to what is happening in the present moment with an open, non-judging attitude. At the same time, however, research has consistently recognized that the average frequency and intensity with which individuals experience states of mindfulness varies between individuals, suggesting that there is a trait-like tendency toward mindful states. Accordingly, it is well-established in the pertinent literature to use the terms dispositional mindfulness or trait-mindfulness to describe this tendency and to employ self-report measures for its assessment. Longitudinal studies revealed a significant and positive association between individuals' overall dispositional mindfulness scores and state mindfulness scores, assessed in their regular day-to-day lives. Also, there is solid evidence that dispositional mindfulness can be increased by mindfulness practice such as mindfulness meditation or other mindfulness-based interventions.

Against this background, the focus of our study is on self-reported dispositional mindfulness and its effects on the outcome variables under investigation. This is in line with previous research on leader–employee relations that "reflect experiences and behaviors over extended time periods, making a state-level approach less suitable". For the sake of simplicity, we herein use the term mindfulness (or mindful leaders) to describe those higher in self-reported dispositional mindfulness.