PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

1a. Define psychology

• What is psychology?
• How do psychologists study their topics?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study observable behavior and measurable mental processes using the empirical method of discovery.
 
To review, see Principles of Psychology and Psychology and Other Sciences.

1b. Identify the role of prominent researchers and theorists in the development of the field of psychology

• What is the importance of Wilhelm Wundt and William James in the development of psychology?
• What were Sigmund Freud's influences on psychology?
• How did research by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner differ from previous work in psychology? What influences does behaviorism have to this day?

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. We trace the origin of the field back to Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), the German physiologist, philosopher, and professor, and his laboratory in Germany. William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist.
 
The discipline evolved from Wundt's focus on introspection (understanding internal processes to stimuli) to Sigmund Freud's (1856–1939), Erik Erikson's (1902–1994), Jean Piaget's (1896–1980) exploration of broader concepts like child development, to Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), Carl Roger's (1902–1987) study of human behavior and motivation, and Noam Chomsky's (1928– ) exploration of language acquisition.
 
In Europe, Sigmund Freud developed his theory of psychosexual development, which highlighted the important role of childhood experiences in human personality development. His theory remains influential to this day, although many disagree with his view that childhood experiences and behaviors determine a person's personality during adulthood.
 
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson (1878–1958), and B.F. Skinner developed behaviorism in the United States. It became a major emphasis in psychology and contributed to our understanding of why we repeat certain behaviors. Many use principles of behaviorism such as reinforcement and shaping in educational and clinical settings.
 
To review, read History of Psychology and watch History of Psychology.

1c. Summarize the leading schools of thought in the history of psychology

• What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism?
• What are the basic tenets of Gestalt psychology?
• Why is behaviorism so influential in psychology's history?
• What are the basic tenets of humanism?

William Wundt (1832–1920), the founder of the field of psychology, was a structuralist; he assumed we can only understand human behavior if we break it into parts. He used his method of introspection to study the experience of perception. William James, the first American psychologist, was a functionalist; he emphasized the adaptive responses of humans to the environment.
 
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed a theory of psychosexual development and was the founder of psychoanalysis. He believed early childhood experiences significantly impact future personality development. Subsequently, patients undergoing psychoanalytic therapy were asked to think about their childhood experiences. Another major focus is uncovering unconscious and subconscious memories and experiences.
 
Humanism emerged in response to the deterministic schools of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who focused on the innate potential for good within humans, influenced the development of this school of thought.
 
Gestalt psychology, founded by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), was popular in Europe. Gestalt psychologists focus on human perception and believe we tend to perceive the sum of all parts rather than individual differences.
 
American psychologists focused on behaviorism, the study of the mechanisms that shape and reinforce behavior. Ivan Pavlov used dogs to study behaviorism and introduced the concept of classical conditioning, a learning process of two (or more) associated stimuli.
 
John B. Watson (1878–1958) and B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) explored operant conditioning (learning through punishments and rewards) with a focus on how reinforcements and punishments influence human and animal behavior. Behaviorism was the dominant school of psychology during the 1950s and 1960s.
 
To review, see History of Psychology, Contemporary Psychology, Careers in Psychology, and History of Psychology.

1d. Describe the scientific method, research methods in psychology, and the principles of scientific experiment planning and design

• What is the scientific method? What is its role in psychology?
• What research methods are popular in the field of psychology?
• What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research?

Social science researchers use the scientific method to explore phenomena in a systematic, objective way. The steps of the scientific method (hypothesis, research, observation, theory) influence and build on one another in a continuous cycle. Using the scientific method ensures research is performed systematically and can be replicated by others.
 
Psychology incorporates several popular research methods where researchers systematically observe phenomena, such as naturalistic observation. This method is particularly popular in animal research and in instances when individuals do not want to disclose their motivations. Psychologists ask participants to fill out forms to rate their experiences in research surveys. They conduct interviews to gather in-depth information from participants about particular experiences.
 
Most psychological research is cross-sectional, which means researchers study phenomena at one point in time. This is primarily due to the large costs associated with longitudinal research that usually spans a long period. Although longitudinal research is more expensive and presents more research difficulties, it allows researchers to draw firmer conclusions.
 
To review, see Why Research Is Important and Approaches to Research.

1e. Explain data analysis techniques commonly used in psychology research

• What is a correlation? Why does a correlation not imply causation?
• What are the components of an experimental research design?

A correlation is a statistic that measures the degree of association between two variables. A correlation tells researchers if and how two variables are related. Correlation does NOT imply one variable causes another.
 
For example, a researcher who discovers a positive correlation between happiness and exercise cannot conclude we derive happiness from exercise. Other variables we are not measuring may also have an impact. For example, diet may affect happiness or the willingness to exercise – there is really no relationship between happiness and exercise.
 
Even if a causal relationship exists between the variables, we cannot tell which is the cause and which is the effect. Perhaps being happy makes people exercise more, or exercise makes people happier. Cross-sectional research uncovers correlations, while longitudinal research can provide more insight into causation.
 
Psychologists who use experimental research design use separate control and experimental groups – this means they randomly assign participants to each group. Psychologists manipulate the independent variable, so one group is exposed to it, but the other is not.
 
For example, in pharmaceutical research, the experimental group may receive a new drug while the control group receives a placebo. Researchers then measure the dependent variable (the outcome) to explore the effect the independent variable posed (or did not).
 
 

Unit 1 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• behaviorism
• classical conditioning
• correlation
• cross-sectional research
• empirical method
• experimental research design
• functionalism
• Gestalt psychology
• humanism
• introspection
• operant conditioning
• psychoanalysis
• scientific method
• structuralism
• theory of psychosexual development
• Wilhelm Wundt
• William James