PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

5a. Explain the components of language, the development of language, and the relationship between language and thinking

• What are the main components of language?
• How does language develop in infancy and early childhood?
• Does language affect the way a person thinks?

Language is a fundamental skill that distinguishes humans from other animals. Being able to talk about the past and future, describe what we are thinking and feeling, and explain our motives allows us to form close relationships, make plans, and share innovations. But language is a complicated subject to study.
 
Psychologists begin by considering the main components of language, such as phonemes (the smallest units of sound that make up words), morphemes (the smallest units of language that carry any meaning), grammar (the system of rules that govern word construction), syntax (the system of rules that govern sentence construction), and semantics (the rules for deriving meaning from language).
 
Babies are born unable to use language at all, but most are able to communicate fairly well by the age of two years. There are predictable stages of language acquisition, which allow babies to move from reflexive crying at birth, through first words around the first birthday, two-word sentences by the second birthday, and full sentences by three to five years of age. As children gain competence with their first language, they show evidence that they recognize the rules of grammar by displaying overgeneralization, which is treating all words as if they were regular.
 
Psychologists have explored whether the words available within a language determine the way speakers think about things or if the way speakers think about things determines the language they use. Cross-language studies reveal that languages differ in the number of words they devote to explain particular things in their surroundings, but it is unclear whether this affects the way the speakers think about that thing.
 
To review, see Principles of Language and Components of Language and Language Acquisition.
 

5b. Explain problem-solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics, and factors that interfere with problem-solving and decision-making

• What is a problem-solving strategy?
• What is an algorithm?
• What is a heuristic?
• What factors can interfere with our ability to solve problems effectively?

We confront problems every day. What should we have for dinner? Should we go to college? What show should we watch on TV? Psychologists have studied the strategies people use to solve problems and put them into two main categories: Algorithms – step-by-step strategies that can be time-consuming but are more likely to produce sound results, and heuristics – rule-of-thumb strategies that are quicker but more prone to error.
 
Many thinking errors impede our ability to solve problems successfully, such as mental set (our expectation for how the problem could be solved interferes with our successful solution of the problem), functional fixedness (our focus on only one use for an object interferes with us using that object in another way), anchoring bias (relying on one piece of information when making judgments), confirmation bias (our tendency to seek out information that supports what we already believe and ignore information that would show us we are wrong), and more.
 
To review, see Principles of Problem Solving and Problem-Solving, Biases, and Judgement Errors.
 

5c. Define intelligence and its theories, emotional intelligence and creativity, the development of intelligence tests, the history and use of IQ tests, the purposes and benefits of intelligence testing, and factors that affect intelligence

• What is intelligence?
• What is creativity?
• What is emotional intelligence?
• What theories of intelligence have been developed?
• How are intelligence tests developed?
• How have intelligence tests been used?
• What factors affect intelligence?

The topic of intelligence is controversial. Psychologists define intelligence as the ability to learn from and adapt to our environment. Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful responses. Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize emotions in yourself and in others and to regulate your own emotions.
 
There are many theories of intelligence. Spearman's g factor assumes there is one basic general intelligence capability. Sternberg's triarchic theory assumes there are three types of intelligence. Gardner's multiple intelligences theory proposes there are at least eight types of intelligence.
 
Intelligence tests are standardized, which means test administrators must be trained to administer, score, and interpret the results. Scores are interpreted relative to norms, which are average scores based on a representative sample of test-takers (a group of people who match the overall population). The scores of a representative sample fall into a bell curve, which is a symmetrical distribution where most scores cluster around the average score of 100.
 
We use intelligence tests for student placement – to identify students who need additional resources because their intelligence is in the top two percent or the bottom two percent of the bell curve – and for a variety of other purposes. Intelligence is determined mostly by genes, but the environment can affect how these genes are expressed. The range of reaction reflects the finding that human intelligence has a fixed range that is set by genes, but the environment determines where the person's intelligence falls within that range.
 
To review, see Intelligence and Creativity, Measures of Intelligence, Intelligence and General Intelligence Theory, Creativity, Creative Thinkers, and the Components of Creativity, The Source of Intelligence, and How IQ and Intelligence Affect Our Lives.

 

5d. Discuss basic memory functions, the three stages of memory storage, and the types of memory

• What are the stages of memory processing?
• What is the difference between semantic and episodic memory?
• How is long-term memory further divided?

Memory, our system of storing and retrieving information, is similar to a computer-based information processing system. We process memory in this order: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

1. During the encoding stage, our brain receives or inputs new information. This process is enhanced when meaning is attached to new information.
2. After our brain encodes the information, it moves it into storage for retention. Memory passes through three stages as it moves into storage: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
3. Retrieval or recall, the final part of the system, refers to drawing on memory when we need it. We can differentiate further between recall (accessing information without cues) and recognition (identifying previously learned information via comparisons).

We can subdivide long-term memory into explicit or declarative memory (memory we personally experience) and implicit or non-declarative memory (not part of our consciousness, such as the memory that is formed during behaviors).
 
Semantic memory and episodic memory are components of explicit/declarative memory (memories that we can try to recall consciously). Semantic memory refers to words, concepts, and facts, whereas episodic memory refers to our previous experiences. Only long-term memory can be recalled at a later point in time.
 
To review, see How Memory Functions, Simply Explained: Explicit and Implicit Knowledge, Memory: The Modal Model, and Long Term Memory.
 

5e. Explain the brain functions involved in memory, the specific roles of the most important structures, times when memory is faulty, and ways to improve memory

• What parts of the brain are involved in memory processing?
• What are common strategies to enhance memory functioning?
• What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?
• How does memory construction contribute to memory errors?
• What are some ways to improve memory?

Scientists have shown that specific parts of the brain are involved in the memory process. The amygdala regulates and controls emotions and can affect how memories are stored (such as by the stress or emotion they are associated with). There is also evidence that the hippocampus helps retain spatial memories and attaches meaning to memories. Finally, the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex are responsible for forming implicit memories (that is, procedural memory). Aside from specific parts of the brain, scientists believe neurotransmitters affect memory storage.
 
The various parts of the brain that affect memory (amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) work together to form, store, and retrieve information. However, our brains sometimes fail (such as if we experience head trauma), and we cannot form new information or retrieve previous memories. For example, patients diagnosed with anterograde amnesia cannot remember new information; those suffering from retrograde amnesia cannot recall events or information prior to a memory-related injury.
 
Forensic, criminal, and social psychologists point out that people are susceptible to memory construction errors. Common memory problems that impede adequate recall of events (which witnesses often experience) include suggestibility, eyewitness misidentification, and the misinformation effect. Forgetting is another way memory can be faulty. Forgetting may be due to inadequate encoding (known as encoding failure) or due to one or more of Schacter's seven sins of forgetting.
 
We can employ several strategies to improve our memory, such as chunking, elaborative rehearsal, and mnemonic devices. Chunking refers to organizing information into chunks or bits of information, such as remembering our social security number in a pattern of three and two digits (XXX-XX-XXX) rather than memorizing individual digits. Elaborative rehearsal is a process where we attribute meaning to new information to already stored information. Mnemonic devices help us retain new information.
 
To review, see Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory, Problems with Memory, The Neurological Processes of Memory Creation, and How to Enhance Memory.
 

Unit 5 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• algorithms
• amnesia
• amygdala
• cerebellum
• chunking
• creativity
• elaborative rehearsal
• emotional intelligence
• encoding
• encoding failure
• episodic memory
• explicit memory
• grammar
• heuristics
• hippocampus
• implicit memory
• intelligence
• intelligence test
• memory
• mnemonic devices
• morpheme
• overgeneralization
• phoneme
• prefrontal cortex
• retrieval
• semantic memory
• semantics
• storage
• syntax
• thinking errors