PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

6a. Categorize famous psychologists according to their studies and theories of development, including Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, John Bowlby, Lev Vygotsky, and Harry Harlow

• What does Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development suggest?
• What are the stages of development in Jean Piaget's theory?
• Which psychologists studied attachment? What do their theories suggest?

Sigmund Freud developed the theory of psychosexual development, which claims personality is determined at an early age. His theory is based on pleasure-seeking behaviors and is characterized by five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
 
Erik Erikson also focused on children's emotional and social development, but Jean Piaget focused on children's cognitive development. Piaget focused on how children develop logic and learn how to apply logical operations. In this model, he differentiates four stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
 
Harry Harlow (1905–1981), John Bowlby (1907–1990), and Mary Ainsworth (1913–1999) studied the attachments, bonds, and relationships children form with their primary caregivers. The relationships we have with family and friends are a foundation of childhood and affect child and human development.
 
Harlow worked with monkeys to understand the infant/mother bond. He discovered there is more to the bond between mother and child than mere nourishment.
 
Bowlby developed a more formalized attachment theory and differentiated between secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized attachments. Children with healthy attachments have secure relationships with their parents and are allowed to explore their surroundings under a caring eye. A secure child has a parent who is responsive to their needs; they engage in mutually-enjoyable interactions.
 
Ainsworth studied the separation between infants/toddlers and their mothers and concluded there are three types of attachment: secure, avoidant, and resistant. Like Bowlby, Ainsworth finds secure attachments are characterized by responsive and attentive parents.
 
To review, see Principles of Lifespan Development and Lifespan Theories.

 

6b. Compare the major theories of human development

• What are some differences between Sigmund Freud's and Erik Erikson's development theories?
• What are some differences between Jean Piaget's and Lawrence Kohlberg's theories?

Sigmund Freud was concerned with childhood development, but Erik Erikson focused on a person's entire lifespan. Freud's model was deterministic and viewed childhood as the time when a person's personality was determined. Erikson provided more autonomy to the individual by suggesting each person struggles with different conflicts at various stages in their life and that personality is dependent on the resolution of conflicts. Both theorists offer stages of human development.
 
Jean Piaget was concerned with children's cognitive development and tried to understand how they perceive and make sense of the world. Lawrence Kohlberg was concerned with children's moral development. Piaget developed his work based on observable interactions with children, whereas Kohlberg had to rely on hypothesized situations.
 
Each of these theorists presented a unique way of thinking about childhood and human development. Ample research supports each approach, and there is no consensus that only one theorist is correct. Today's psychologists draw on all of these foundations.
 
To review, see Lifespan Theories.
 

6c. Identify the major milestones of each period of lifespan development

• What are some physical developmental milestones young children should hit? For example, at what age should children be able to name familiar things?
• What are some major features of social and physical development for adolescents?
• What are the stages of adulthood?

Children experience rapid physical development from birth until early childhood. Children grow in height and weight, and their brains develop just as quickly. As children develop their fine and motor skills, parents can look for several milestones.
 
For example, by the age of two, children should be able to kick a ball and communicate in simple sentences. At age three, we expect children to climb stairs and pedal a tricycle, four-year-olds should be able to catch a ball and remember songs and rhymes, and five-year-olds should be able to use a fork and spoon.
 
Adolescence is a socially-constructed stage of development when young people form their own identities and slowly retreat from parental oversight. Puberty usually marks the onset of this stage. Adolescents' sexual and reproductive systems mature, and their brains continue to grow. Boys and girls also grow rapidly in height during this stage, and the frontal lobe of the brain continues to develop.
 
Adulthood is divided into three stages: early adulthood (roughly age 20-40), middle adulthood (40-60), and late adulthood (60 and older). Once we reach early adulthood, our physical development is complete. Our physical abilities reach their peak during the early part of this stage. Physical decline begins during middle adulthood. You may see your first wrinkles, and your vision may begin to decline. Late adulthood is characterized by more decline, such as increased skin elasticity, weight gain, and problems with sensory stimulation. The brain may also slow down during this stage, leading to common problems such as memory loss and dementia.
 
To review, see Stages of Development and Social and Emotional Development in Infancy.
 

6d. Describe the stages of human prenatal development and influences during pregnancy

• What are the stages of prenatal development?
• Which harmful agents can affect prenatal development?

Studying the human lifespan is not complete without an examination of the biology and process of conception and pregnancy. The first two weeks of pregnancy are called the germinal stage of development, when the child's DNA is created. Cells rapidly multiply. The embryonic stage lasts until week eight of pregnancy. During this stage, the embryo is formed, and a placenta develops. The last stage of prenatal development, the fetal stage, lasts from weeks nine through birth (week 40). Sex organs begin to develop during the early part of this stage, and body parts and internal organs develop later.
 
Growing embryos experience much of what their mothers do; they can hear sounds and digest the same food. Pregnant women are advised to avoid harmful agents such as alcohol, nicotine, and illegal substances because scientists have linked these teratogens to negative effects on a developing fetus.
 
For example, the children of mothers who consumed a lot of alcohol during pregnancy may develop lower intelligence and demonstrate changed facial features, such as smaller heads and eye sizes.
 
To review, see Stages of Development and Prenatal Development.
 

6e. Discuss the main issues related to death and dying

• What is hospice care?
• What are the five stages of grief?
• What are the legal issues surrounding end-of-life decisions?

In American culture, many people avoid discussions of death and dying because they can be difficult. Most people hope they have a good death, which usually refers to the context, sense of control, and the way a person dies.
 
Hospice care can help ensure a good death. This service involves social workers, nurses, and a care team who helps people face a terminal diagnosis and their family deal with the end of life. When a person confronts their own terminal diagnosis or that of their loved one, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross said they experience five stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
 
When making end-of-life decisions, some people create a living will or an advance directive to give specific instructions for how family members and medical personnel should proceed in the event of a terminal illness. A Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order informs healthcare professionals of a person's intent to reject extraordinary life-saving efforts, such as intubation or defibrillation. Some people appoint a health care proxy to make decisions for them if they have declining health or foresee they may be unable to make their own health care decisions one day.
 
To review, see Death and Dying and The Wisdom of Grief and Grieving.
 

Unit 6 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• adolescence
• attachment theory
• early adulthood
• embryonic stage
• Erik Erikson
• fetal stage
• five stages of grief
• germinal stage
• Harry Harlow
• Jean Piaget
• John Bowlby
• late adulthood
• Lawrence Kohlberg
• middle adulthood
• milestone
• pregnancy
• puberty
• Sigmund Freud