PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

9a. Define social psychology

• What is the difference between situationism and dispositionism?
• What is the fundamental attribution error? Provide real-life examples.
• In which type of culture is the fundamental attribution error most commonly found?
• What is self-serving bias?

Social psychology is concerned with understanding people's behavior, with explanations for why we think or behave the way we do.
 
Human behaviors result from internal factors (personality traits) and external factors (situations, social context). Situationism is the belief that our immediate environment and surroundings determine our behavior. In contrast, dispositionism believes internal factors determine our behavior.
 
Western cultures, such as the United States, favor a dispositionism view and assume we are aware of our own choices and behaviors. This may cause us to conclude behavior is a function of an internal trait without considering the social context.
 
The fundamental attribution error believes human behavior is solely based on internal traits (not taking the situation into account). Research shows that people from individualistic cultures (which focus on individual achievement and autonomy) tend to commit fundamental attribution errors more frequently. People from Western cultures usually associate internal dispositions with behavior. The fundamental attribution error highlights this phenomenon and claims people assume internal factors/traits are to blame for human behavior rather than consider the context of a situation.
 
For example, let's say you are driving, and the car in front of you suddenly swerves out of control. People from Western cultures may conclude the driver is reckless or inexperienced without considering the external situation. However, the driver may be swerving to avoid hitting an animal on the road, or they may be experiencing a health emergency.
 
Actor-observer bias expands on fundamental attribution error. These individuals assume others behave the way they do according to internal traits (fundamental attribution error), but their own behavior is due to situational factors. For example, this individual might blame their poor exam score on the noisy exam room or claim their teacher failed to explain the concepts properly. They may not accept that they earned a poor grade because they failed to study or ask for tutoring help.
 
We commit self-serving bias when we make internal attribution for our successes (I am an excellent tennis player) and fail to take situational factors into account (the sun was shining in my opponent's eyes during the match).
 
The just world hypothesis stipulates we all get what we deserve. For example, we may assume a homeless person did something wrong to deserve their predicament.
 
We adopt cognitive biases to explain human behavior in social settings. Social psychology argues we should view behavior and actions in context.
 
To review, see Principles of Social Psychology, A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, and Errors in Attribution.
 

9b. Describe self-presentation, attitudes, and persuasion

• What do social psychologists mean by "attitude"?
• What is cognitive dissonance?
• How are attitudes changed through persuasion?
• How do the peripheral and central routes of persuasion differ?
• What was the Stanford prison experiment? Who was the researcher who pioneered this study?

Social psychologists have coined several terms to explain social behaviors. For example, an attitude refers to an evaluation or judgment we make about a person, idea, or object. Cognitive dissonance means holding two or more opposing views or attitudes. Smokers are prime examples of this, since most are aware of the bad health effects of smoking, yet they choose to participate in unhealthy behavior. In social psychological terms, these smokers experience cognitive dissonance.
 
Persuasion refers to changing your attitude based on communication with another person. The central route to persuasion relies on facts and statistics, whereas the peripheral route relies on linking positive emotions with the message being conveyed.
 
Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford prison experiment, where participants were randomly assigned to the roles of prison guards or prisoners in a fake prison set up in the basement of Stanford University. Zimbardo wanted to explore the power of social roles and norms. He had to end the experiment early because the participants exhibited increasingly aggressive behaviors.
 
To review, see Principles of Self-Presentation, The Stanford Prison Experiment, Attitudes and Persuasion, and Cognitive Dissonance.
 

9c. Compare conformity, compliance, and obedience

• What is conformity? Who researched this concept?
• What is obedience, and how was it tested in Milgram's experiment?
• What are groupthink, social facilitation, and social loafing?

In a group context, conformity can occur when you change your behavior or attitude to align with a group. In a famous study, Solomon Asch (1907–1996) found this conformity effect (Asch effect) when a group convinced a research participant of an untrue fact and caused the participant to change their attitude to conform to the consensus of the group.
 
Obedience refers to changing your behavior due to a request from an authority figure. Stanley Milgram conducted a famous experiment on obedience to authority at Yale University, showing that many people will obey a command (exhibit compliance) to authority because they like to please authority figures or they are afraid of negative consequences. Milgram used confederates to pressure study participants to administer (fake) electric shocks to other people. The participants did not know the shocks were never administered, and many assumed they had caused great bodily harm to another person when they left his experiment.
 
A group can influence individual behavior in several ways. If the group is highly cohesive, focused on a single task, with a charismatic leader, the members of the group may display groupthink – expressing agreement with the group, even when the member personally disagrees. Social facilitation occurs when a person performs better in the presence of others than they would when they are alone. When a group is given a task to complete, and the members will all receive the same reward, some members may display social loafing – decreased effort in the presence of others.
 
To review, see Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience, Asch's Conformity Experiment: Groupthink, and The Milgram Experiment: When Ordinary People Do Terrible Things.
 

9d. Explain prejudice and discrimination

• What are prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination?
• Why do prejudice and discrimination exist?

Prejudice refers to a negative attitude or feeling toward an individual based on their membership in a particular social group. A stereotype is a negative belief about individuals based on their membership in a certain group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes are often precursors to the development of prejudice. Discrimination refers to negative actions toward an individual due to their membership in a particular group.
 
Many factors contribute to the development of stereotypes and prejudice. One is in-group/out-group bias, where we tend to favor members of our own in-group and distrust and assume negative things about the out-group. Scapegoating also fosters prejudicial thinking; when something goes wrong that is out of our control, we may blame an out-group for our difficulties.
 
To review, see Prejudice and Discrimination, Prejudice and Stereotyping, and The Three Components of Prejudice.
 

9e. Explain the theories and types of aggression and prosocial behavior

• What is aggression?
• What is the bystander effect? Provide real-life examples.
• What is altruism?
• How does the triangular theory of love explain different kinds of love?
• What is the social exchange theory of relationships?

Psychologists define aggression as when people inflict harm on another. It may be intentional (hostile aggression) or a byproduct of pursuing their own goals (instrumental aggression).
 
When several people witness the same event, they are less likely to interfere or act when needed than they would if they were alone when they witnessed the event. We call this the bystander effect. For example, a person may not offer money or food to a homeless person on the street, assuming others will.
 
Altruism refers to a person's desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. Empathy –  the capacity to understand another person's perspective and feelings – helps fuel altruistic behavior.
 
The triangular theory of love asserts there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. One or more of these three components can be present on their own, in combination with another, or with all three components present. These combinations allow for seven different types of love relationships.
 
Social exchange theory says we seek to maximize the benefits of social exchanges and minimize the costs. If a relationship has more positives than negatives, the participants are more likely to remain in the relationship.
 
To review, see Principles of Aggression, Ostracism and Aggression, Prosocial Behavior, and Aggression and Prosocial Behaviour.
 

Unit 9 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• actor-observer bias
• aggression
• altruism
• attitude
• bystander effect
• cognitive bias
• cognitive dissonance
• compliance
• conformity
• discrimination
• dispositionism
• empathy
• fundamental attribution error
• groupthink
• just world hypothesis
• obedience
• persuasion
• Philip Zimbardo
• prejudice
• self-serving bias
• situationism
• social exchange theory
• social facilitation
• social loafing
• social psychology
• Solomon Asch
• Stanford prison experiment
• Stanley Milgram
• stereotype
• triangular theory of love