PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

11a. Describe stress, the stress process, and the physiological basis of stress

• What is stress?
• What's the difference between primary and secondary appraisal?
• How can stress manifest itself?

The field of health psychology studies our well-being, how we handle stress, and how stressful experiences impact our daily lives and health. Stress is not an easy concept to define because people experience and respond to it differently. Most researchers agree we should focus on how we respond to stressful situations to define stress (rather than stimulus-based definitions).
 
Consequently, an acceptable definition of stress is a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being. We refer to these events as stressors.
 
Our response to stress determines how it affects us. It is important to distinguish between primary and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal refers to our judgment about the degree of harm or threat a particular stressor has on us. For example, our fear that we may receive a poor grade may make us feel threatened when report cards are about to be distributed.
 
Our perception of a threat leads to secondary appraisal, which refers to our judgment on how we cope or respond to the stressor. We might not feel as stressed or threatened by the stressor if we decide we can take action. For example, we may decide to discuss the poor grade we received with our teacher since they may provide an opportunity to do extra work so we can earn a better grade.
 
Stress can manifest itself through a variety of symptoms and responses, which can be physiological (elevated heartbeat, sweating, gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (having trouble concentrating), or behavioral (engaging in harmful behaviors to alleviate the stressor).
 
To review, see What Is Stress?, Stress and Stressors, The Healthy Life, and More on Stressors.
 

11b. Explain the research on stress done by Walter Cannon and Hans Selye and how it applies to real-world situations

• What contributions did Walter Cannon and Hans Selye make to health psychology?
• What are some differences and similarities in their work?

Walter Cannon (1871–1945), an American physiologist, was among the first to explore stress and how our bodies respond to stressful events. He described the fight or flight response to stress which suggests our body quickly arouses the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system when we confront a stressful event. Our pupils dilate, our breathing quickens, we begin to sweat, our heart rate increases, and our muscles tense or tremble. These physiological responses prepare us to fight or flee from a stressful event.
 
Hans Selye (1907–1982), a Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist, studied how rats responded to stress. He studied what he called the General Adaptation Syndrome, our body's physiological response to stress. He explained that our bodies react in three stages when we confront a stressful event: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion.
 
Selye agreed with Cannon that our initial reaction (alarm reaction) is fight or flight. Our body provides us with energy to fight or escape the stressor. As the stressor continues, our bodies move on to a stage of resistance, when the initial shock wears off and our bodies slowly adapt to the stressor but remain on high alert. During this stage, our body is still ready to respond, but with less intensity than in the previous stage. When the stressor continues over a longer period of time, we move to a stage of exhaustion when we can no longer adapt to the stressor and our body becomes weakened and more susceptible to illness.
 
To review, read Stress and Stressors.
 

11c. Explain how stress affects bodily functioning and illness

• What is the relationship between stress and health? Which bodily systems can be affected by stress?
• What is the relationship between Type A & B personalities and the development of cardiovascular disease?

When we are stressed, our bodies release the stress hormone cortisol, which gives us extra energy to fight or flee. We can handle short spurts of Cortisol, but the extended release of this hormone can cause negative effects. Research links increased Cortisol levels to a decline in our immune systems and our ability to fight diseases.
 
Research shows that chronic or persistent stress can have harmful effects on our bodies and manifest itself in the form of psychophysiological problems. Stress creates the following negative effects on our bodily systems:

• Cardiovascular – hypertension, heart disease
• Gastrointestinal – problems with bowel movements
• Respiratory – asthma, allergies
• Musculoskeletal – pains, headaches
• Skin – acne, eczema

The American cardiologists Meyer Friedman (1910–2001) and Ray Rosenman (1920–1913) linked personality types to chronic stress and cardiovascular disease. They found people who display a Type A personality (workaholic, rushed, career-focused, and confrontational) are more likely to develop heart disease than patients with a Type B personality who are more relaxed and laid-back.
 
To review, see Stress and Illness, Physical Effects of Stress, and Stress Management.
 

11d. Explain how coping mechanisms help to regulate stress

• What is the difference between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping?
• What types of stress reduction techniques can help alleviate stress?

In addition to studying different types of stress, health psychologists also analyze how we use coping mechanisms to deal with stress. They differentiate two different styles of coping. Problem-focused coping refers to identifying the problem and doing something about it to make it less stressful (action-focused). Emotion-focused coping refers to changing the negative emotions attached to the stressor.
 
For example, if you suddenly lose your job, you may begin looking for a new job right away, update your resume (problem-focused), and recognize you have an opportunity to pursue another career interest (emotion-focused). How we cope with stress often depends on our belief about how much control we have during a stressful situation.
 
Research finds that social support can help us cope with stress. Stress reduction techniques are also helpful. Examples include the relaxation stress response technique, which combines relaxation and meditation, or biofeedback, which uses an electronic apparatus to measure and provide feedback on visual and auditory signals.
 
To review, see Regulation of Stress and Behavioral Effects of Stress.
 

11e. Explain the subfield of positive psychology and the importance of happiness

• Who developed the field of positive psychology? What does it focus on?
• What is happiness?

Martin Seligman (1942– ) recently founded the field of positive psychology when he studied learned helplessness. These psychologists focus on human strengths and identify factors in life that make us feel happy and fulfilled. Some equate the field of positive psychology with the study of happiness.
 
While there are many definitions of happiness, some researchers believe it consists of three elements:

1. The pleasant life – the attainment of daily pleasures;
2. The good life – identifying specific skills that make us happy; and
3. The meaningful life – deriving a sense of fulfillment or meaning from our activities.

Researchers discovered a strong correlation between happiness and age – older people tend to be happier. We also associate having family, friends, education, and employment with happiness.
 
To review, see The Pursuit of Happiness and Positive Psychology.
 

Unit 11 Vocabulary

Be sure you understand these terms as you study for the final exam. Try to think of the reason why each term is included.

• coping mechanism
• cortisol
• fight or flight
• General Adaptation Syndrome
• Hans Selye
• health psychology
• learned helplessness
• positive psychology
• primary appraisal
• psychophysiological problems
• secondary appraisal
• stress
• Type A personality
• Type B personality
• Walter Cannon