SOC101 Study Guide

Unit 7: Social Change and Social Issues

7a. Explain different forms of collective behavior

  • What are the different forms of collective behavior observed in societies?
  • How do crowds, mobs, panics, and fads manifest, and what are their implications for social dynamics?
  • How do sociological theories explain the emergence and consequences of collective behavior?

Collective behavior appears in various forms, such as crowds, mobs, panics, and fads. Crowds are gatherings of people with shared emotions or interests. A mob, which has a negative connotation, is a group that pursues a common goal, usually with intense emotions. Panics are sudden, irrational reactions to threats. Fads are short-lived trends that spread rapidly.

Crowds can be peaceful or turn into mobs when emotions escalate. Panics often lead to irrational decision-making and behaviors during emergencies, such as fires or acts of violence. Fads emerge and spread quickly due to social influences. Fashion trends are often described as fads that will disappear quickly when a new popular style emerges. These phenomena reflect how individuals behave in groups, influencing norms, emotions, and actions.

Functionalists view collective behavior as an expression or response to societal dysfunctions, needs, and tensions. Conflict theorists view collective behavior as a normal and expected group response to social injustice and class power struggle. Remember that Karl Marx predicted the working class (proletariat) would join forces to overthrow the ruling class (bourgeoisie) to protest their dismal living conditions during the Industrial Revolution and win control of the means of production. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals' shared symbols and meanings influence their collective behavior. Sociological theories help us understand why and how collective behavior occurs, shedding light on its beneficial or destructive impact on societies.

To review, see Collective Behavior.


7b. Discuss the characteristics and causes of social movements

  • What characteristics define social movements?
  • What factors contribute to the emergence and success of social movements?
  • How do sociological perspectives analyze the motivations and dynamics behind social movements?

Social movements are collective efforts to bring about social change. They involve organized groups with shared goals, strategies, and sustained efforts to address specific issues. Social movements often challenge existing power structures and advocate for social justice or equality.

Most social movements originate as grievances, complaints about social injustices, frustration with inaction, or a collective demand for change. Success depends on the relative effectiveness of the group's ability to organize its followers, access to resources, public support, and the ability to influence policy. Media coverage, alliances, and charismatic leaders can also impact success.

As mentioned above, functionalists view collective behavior as an expression or response to societal dysfunctions, needs, and tensions. Conflict theorists view collective behavior as a normal and expected group response to social injustice and class power struggle. Remember that Karl Marx predicted the working class (proletariat) would join forces to overthrow the ruling class (bourgeoisie) to protest their dismal living conditions during the Industrial Revolution and win control of the means of production. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals' shared symbols and meanings influence their collective behavior. Sociological theories help us understand why and how collective behavior occurs, shedding light on its beneficial or destructive impact on societies.

To review, see Social Movements and What Makes Social Movements Succeed?.


7c. Explain how technology, social institutions, population, and the environment can promote social change

  • How do technology, social institutions, population changes, and environmental factors influence social change?
  • Can you think of examples of how each of these factors has contributed to shifts in societies?
  • How do these factors interact and shape the trajectory of social change?

New technologies and scientific innovation have historically disrupted traditional norms and behaviors. Social institutions, such as family, government, education, and religious institutions, can adapt to these disruptions or dig in their heels to resist change. Changing demographics and population can impact social dynamics. Environmental factors, such as when plentiful resources become scarce and climate change, can also prompt shifts.

Technological advances have transformed communication and promoted new types of businesses and advances in medicine. Evolving social norms and trends toward social acceptance have changed the family structure. Population growth has led to urbanization and multicultural societies. Environmental concerns have driven movements for sustainability. These changes can stoke division and even violence when conflicts arise between those who fear change and want to retain previous social norms and those who are more willing to accept change and adapt.

Interactions during periods of social change are usually complex. Technological innovation affects social institutions, and population changes impact resource demand. Environmental crises can prompt social movements. These factors shape the direction and pace of social change, leading to intricate societal transformations.

To review, see Social Change and The Power of Social Intrapreneurship.


7d. Describe demographic theories, including cornucopian, demographic transition, Malthusian, and zero population growth

  • How do demographic theories explain population dynamics and growth?
  • What is the difference between cornucopian, demographic transition, Malthusian, and zero population growth theories?
  • How do these theories impact our understanding of population trends and their implications?

Demographic theories study population changes and growth. They analyze birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration to understand population trends and dynamics. The cornucopian theory is optimistic about human ingenuity overcoming resource limitations. Demographic transition theory explains how societies shift from high birth and death rates to lower rates or change. Malthusian theory warns of overpopulation outpacing resources. Zero population growth theory aims for an equal balance between births and deaths.

These theories shape how we interpret population trends. Demographic transition theory helps predict shifts in birth and death rates. Malthusian theory highlights concerns about resource depletion. Zero population growth theory informs discussions about sustainability and family planning. Each theory contributes to understanding population dynamics and their consequences.

To review, see Demography and Population.


7e. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on urbanization

  • How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism view urbanization?
  • What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the impact of urbanization on individuals and societies?
  • Explain how each perspective analyzes the challenges and opportunities urbanization presents.

Functionalism emphasizes the role urbanization plays in meeting diverse societal needs efficiently. Because people live in a compact area, it is easier, less expensive, and more efficient for institutions to serve many individuals in a short amount of time with limited travel needs. Functionalism emphasizes the benefits of urban infrastructure and specialized roles.

Conflict theory highlights disparities in urban areas due to power dynamics and views urbanization as a source of inequality and resource competition. Remember that Karl Marx was especially critical of the substandard, unhealthy living conditions factory workers endured when they moved to urban centers during the Industrial Revolution when cities were overcrowded, polluted, and centers of disease. He protested the social inequalities cities exacerbated between the upper classes and the working poor.

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how urban spaces shape daily interactions and identities. These sociologists examine how urban environments shape people's behaviors and interactions. They explored how urban spaces affect personal interactions, identity formation, and socialization. Each perspective adds a unique lens to understanding the complexities of urbanization.

To review, see Urbanization.


7f. Discuss examples of environmental racism

  • What is environmental racism, and how does it manifest in societies?
  • Can you think of examples of environmental injustices and their impact on marginalized communities?
  • How do sociological perspectives analyze the root causes of environmental racism and its implications?

Environmental racism refers to the disproportionate burden environmental hazards put on marginalized communities, often due to race and socioeconomic status. This type of discrimination manifests itself when city governments allow companies to build polluting industries, install waste sites, and eliminate or reduce access to clean resources in areas where these populations reside. The communities are exposed to toxins, fumes, toxic dust, ash, soot, and other pollutants. Research data has shown that residents in these areas experience disproportionate and higher rates of cancer, lead poisoning, obesity (because it is not safe to play or exercise outside), asthma, and other respiratory issues.

Examples include cities that create landfills and dump toxic waste near low-income neighborhoods where residents cannot afford to mount effective protests, enforce healthy regulatory practices, or move to healthier neighborhoods. Low-income families buy houses and rent apartments in these areas because they cannot afford to live elsewhere. Many are unaware of the dangers when they move in, such as in low-lying areas that are now more prone to flooding due to climate change.

In 2014, a local pediatrician discovered, and a group of student researchers in Virginia documented, that Black children who lived in Flint, Michigan, had higher levels of lead poisoning because the city water system had elevated levels of lead and other contaminants. City officials ignored their pleas for help until the residents took action based on the data collection. On a global level, indigenous groups face the desecration of sacred lands and ecological harm and destruction due to excessive and disproportionate mining and resource extraction.

Functionalists emphasize the economic interests driving industry placement. Conflict theory focuses on power dynamics perpetuating these types of social injustice. Symbolic interactionism explores how stigmatization affects affected communities. Together, these perspectives help understand the structural, systemic, and symbolic aspects of environmental racism.

To review, see:


7g. Explain the social construction of health and illness and local and global disparities

  • How are health and illness socially constructed concepts that vary across cultures?
  • What are the local and global disparities in access to healthcare and health outcomes?
  • How do sociological perspectives analyze the role of social factors in shaping health and well-being?

Cultural beliefs shape our perspective and understanding of health and illness. What is considered healthy or normal varies among societies. For example, mental health definitions differ across cultures, impacting stigma and treatment. Social norms and acceptance can also color how we treat those who suffer from drug addiction and sexually transmitted diseases like HIV/AIDS. Locally, disparities can result from income inequality, affecting access to quality care. Globally, limited resources impact health in developing nations. Inequities in health outcomes between wealthy and impoverished areas illustrate these disparities.

Functionalism views healthcare as essential for a functioning society. Conflict theory highlights how wealth and power structures impact how different communities can access adequate healthcare. Symbolic interactionism examines how social interactions and labeling affect health experiences. These perspectives help uncover the social complexities of health and illness.

To review, see:


7h. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on health and medicine

  • How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of health and medicine?
  • What insights do these perspectives offer regarding the role of healthcare systems and medical institutions?
  • How do different perspectives analyze the relationships between patients, medical professionals, and the healthcare industry?

Functionalism views healthcare as crucial for creating a stable society, with medical institutions that serve a vital role in maintaining the health and well-being of the community. Medical professionals are essential components for promoting this purpose.

Conflict theorists expose healthcare disparities that arise from economic and social inequalities and other power struggles. A contemporary example is research that shows Black women are three to four times more likely to experience a pregnancy-related death than White women in the United States. The research showed that Black women face barriers to quality care due to racism, sexism, and income inequality. It found that physicians disregarded complaints about pain due to stereotypes, ignored patient questions, and failed to follow up on treatment recommendations. Low-income families often have to choose between essential resources such as housing, child care, food, and health care. In addition, fewer healthcare providers serve these communities. Conflict theory reveals power dynamics between patients, providers, and industry.

Symbolic interactionism explores how individuals' interactions with healthcare shape their experiences. These theorists underscore how patient-provider interactions shape perceptions of healthcare. They delve into how doctor-patient interactions influence medical care perceptions.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Health and Medicine.


7i. Explain technological inequality and issues related to unequal access to technology

  • What is technological inequality, and how does it manifest in societies?
  • Can you think of examples of how unequal access to technology perpetuates social disparities?
  • How do sociological perspectives analyze the consequences of technological inequality on individuals and communities?

Technological inequality refers to the disparities communities face when trying to access or use technology. This digital divide can occur due to socioeconomic factors, limiting certain groups' access to digital resources and opportunities. This divide is also particularly evident in rural communities where it can be cost-prohibitive for companies to provide high-speed broadband services to connect education institutions, healthcare facilities, libraries, and workplaces. Unequal access to computers and the internet hinders educational and job opportunities. Inadequate digital skills affect job market competitiveness. Lack of access to online healthcare and information deepens health disparities.

Functionalism examines how technological inequality impacts societal function. Conflict theory highlights how powerful groups control technology, deepening inequalities. Symbolic interactionism explores how unequal access affects interactions and identities. These perspectives reveal the multifaceted impact of technological inequality.

To review, see Technology Today.


7j. Define different types of media and concerns with the globalization of media

  • What are the different media types, and how do they influence public perception and communication?
  • What is media globalization, and what are its potential effects on cultural diversity?
  • How do sociological perspectives analyze the role of media in shaping public discourse and social interactions?

Media includes print, broadcast, digital, and social platforms. Media can shape public perception through news, entertainment, and information dissemination, impacting how people perceive events, issues, and each other. Globalization of media refers to the spread of media content worldwide. While it can promote cultural exchange, it may also lead to cultural homogenization as dominant media cultures overshadow local identities.

Functionalism views media as a tool for societal cohesion and information sharing. Conflict theory emphasizes the media's role in perpetuating power imbalances. Symbolic interactionism studies how media influences social interactions and meanings. These perspectives all display the media's complex impact on society.

To review, see:


7k. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on media and technology

  • How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism study media and technology?
  • What insights do they offer regarding the impact of media and technology on society and individuals?
  • How do different perspectives analyze the relationships between media content, technology use, and social dynamics?

Functionalism sees the media as reflecting societal values promoting social cohesion and stability. Conflict theory emphasizes the media's role in shaping dominant narratives. The media can reinforce and perpetuate power dynamics, inequalities, and societal divisions. Symbolic interactionism studies how individuals interpret and interact with media content. These sociologists focus on how the media shapes meanings, personal perceptions, and interactions. These perspectives illuminate the media's intricate connections with society.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives of Media and Technology and Mass Media.


Unit 7 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

  • collective behavior
  • cornucopian theory
  • crowd
  • demographic transition theory
  • digital divide
  • environmental injustices
  • environmental racism
  • fad
  • globalization of media
  • Malthusian theory
  • mob
  • panic
  • social construction of health and illness
  • social movement
  • unequal access to technology
  • urbanization
  • zero population growth theory