SOC101 Study Guide

Unit 5: Social Stratification

5a. Define local and global stratification

  • What is social stratification, and how does it manifest locally and globally?
  • How does social inequality impact individuals and societies?
  • Can you think of examples of social hierarchies in both local and global contexts?

Social stratification ranks individuals on a scale according to their social worth. In most societies, people are divided according to power, money, and resources. Locally, we see economic classes, such as rich, middle-class, and poor. Global stratification divides wealthy and poor countries. This hierarchy affects opportunities, education, and life chances.

When some people have more than others, it can lead to conflicts and tensions. Individuals who face inequality often lack access to the same opportunities as those from the dominant group. This unequal distribution of resources can slow down progress since members of the population are unable to excel because they do not have equal access to the same resources or opportunities.

For a local example, think about the different positions doctors and janitors have on the social ladder. Consider the opportunities they can give their children. Globally, it is like comparing the lifestyle of a chief executive officer (CEO) in a developed country to a farmer in a less developed one. These hierarchies shape opportunities and life experiences. It is like living in different worlds, even though we share the same city or planet.

To review, see:


5b. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on social stratification

  • How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism explain social stratification?
  • What insights do these perspectives offer regarding inequality and social class?
  • How does the distribution of resources contribute to stratification?

Functionalism looks at social stratification as a system that helps society function smoothly. These theorists frequently use a pyramid to depict this type of structure where everyone has a role. Functionalists suggest that some inequality is necessary for society to work efficiently. Everyone needs to find their place in the puzzle.

Conflict theory, on the other hand, sees social stratification as a battle for resources. The rich and powerful keep the system in their favor while the lower classes struggle to get what they consider their fair share. Conflict theory highlights how inequality leads to tension and struggle. The rich control resources, while the working class fights to maintain a healthy environment and obtain some control over their lives and the means of production, as Marx would have argued.

Symbolic interactionism dives into how society defines the roles and statuses of individuals. This resembles actors on a stage who play their parts based on how society sees them. These theorists believe that our social class affects how we are treated and how we see ourselves. Our class status becomes part of our identity.

The distribution of resources is the main ingredient in the recipe for social stratification. In functionalism, those with more important roles get more resources because they are crucial to society's function. In conflict theory, the wealthy control resources to maintain their power and keep others in check. Symbolic interactionism shows how access to resources affects how we interact with others. For example, if someone is wealthy, they are often treated differently, showing how resources shape social interactions.

To review, see:


5c. Describe global stratification and the difference between absolute, relative, and extreme poverty

  • What is global stratification, and how does it impact various nations?
  • What are the distinctions between absolute, relative, and extreme poverty?
  • How does globalization influence patterns of poverty and wealth?

Some nations are rich and powerful, while others are struggling and less developed. This inequality affects everything from access to basic needs to political influence. Rich nations get to call the shots, while poorer ones often end up on the losing side of the global game.

Absolute poverty is when people cannot even afford the basics to survive. Relative poverty is about feeling poor compared to those around you, even if you have enough to get by. Extreme poverty is the harshest form of absolute poverty, where people lack access to essentials like clean water and food.

Globalization can lift some nations from poverty by opening new markets and jobs. However, it can also deepen inequalities as wealthier countries and multinational corporations force trade agreements that carve out benefits for themselves at the expense of the population in poorer countries. It is a complex dance between nations, where the steps are not always fair for everyone globally.

To review, see:


5d. Explain modernization and dependency theories

  • What are modernization and dependency theories, and how do they explain global inequality?
  • How does each theory view the relationship between developed and developing countries?
  • Can you think of examples of how modernization and dependency theories apply to real-world situations?

Modernization theory argues that societies become more prosperous and equal as they modernize and adopt advanced technology. Proponents believe developed countries are role models to follow, like elder siblings who help their poorer, less experienced siblings catch up. This theory celebrates the development of East Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, which adopted many of the methods industrialized countries created (such as steel manufacturing and computer technologies) to modernize their economies to compete on a global scale.

Dependency theory examines the inequality between wealthier, more industrially-developed countries and poorer developing countries, which was created and perpetuated by the unequal power dynamics of colonization. It argues that colonial history continues to shape the struggles of the global south, such as where African nations are working to create new social structures and modify the systems their former colonizers established with borders that do not reflect ethnic and cultural divisions. They are building legitimate governments and recreating the social and economic systems the Europeans destroyed and replaced to subjugate the local population. These theories are used to explain why some nations thrive while others struggle.

To review, see Theoretical Perspectives on Inequality.


5e. Compare functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction perspectives on race and ethnicity

  • How do functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism approach the study of race and ethnicity?
  • What insights do these perspectives offer regarding constructing racial and ethnic identities?
  • How are racial and ethnic inequalities perpetuated or challenged based on these perspectives?

Functionalism sees race and ethnicity as parts of society's machinery, which creates groups with different roles contributing to the overall functioning of society. They suggest these identities serve a purpose in society: to help keep things working smoothly. A functionalist will argue that some inequalities are needed for society to function.

Conflict theory focuses on power struggles among different racial and ethnic groups. These theorists argue that life is a never-ending battle for resources and control. Conflict theory says inequalities persist because powerful groups want to maintain their advantages. These identities create divisions and conflicts when one group is mistreated. They use their influence to keep things as they are.

Symbolic interactionism dives into how race and ethnicity shape our personal interactions. They see race and ethnicity as a script that guides how we see ourselves and others. These theorists show how these identities affect how we communicate, interact, and define ourselves. It is like wearing different masks depending on who we are with. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that these inequalities are reinforced through everyday interactions and cultural norms. But they can also be challenged through awareness and activism, pushing for change.

To review, see:


5f. Distinguish the meaning of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

  • How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ in meaning and impact?
  • What are the sources and consequences of each of these concepts?
  • How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination manifest in different social contexts?

A stereotype is a generalization we make about people who belong to a particular social group that does not take individual differences into account. They can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories. We can be quick to make judgments about people based on group characteristics. Stereotypes often come from social and cultural influences, media, and personal experiences. For example, in the workplace, stereotypes can cause hiring managers to believe that women are less technologically competent than men or that people from Asia are naturally intelligent, docile, or good at math.

Prejudice is a negative attitude, feeling, or belief toward an individual based on their membership in a particular social group. Prejudice is not based on personal experience; it is a prejudgment originating outside actual experience. It is often rooted in stereotypes. Prejudice often arises from learned beliefs or a fear of the unknown. For example, prejudice can cause individuals to avoid making friends with people from a different culture.

Discrimination is when someone acts on the prejudice they feel toward individuals who belong to a particular group. It can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories. Discrimination can stem from prejudice, ignorance, or a desire to maintain power. It can take many forms, from unfair housing practices, such as redlining, to unfair and biased hiring systems. The consequences can be harmful, leading to exclusion, unequal treatment, and social tensions.

To review, see:


5g. Define patterns of intergroup interaction, pluralism, assimilation, segregation, expulsion, and genocide

  • What are the patterns of intergroup interaction – pluralism, assimilation, segregation, expulsion, and genocide?
  • How do these patterns reflect different approaches to diversity and group relationships?
  • Can you think of historical or contemporary examples of each of these patterns?

The following patterns showcase different ways societies handle diversity and group dynamics.

Pluralism is like a colorful mosaic. Some describe it as a "salad bowl" where several different groups coexist while they maintain their distinct cultural identities. Pluralism celebrates diversity, valuing each group's uniqueness. It is prevalent in many large, multicultural global cities, where individuals and groups from various cultures peacefully coexist without giving up the cultural habits and traditions of the places where they originated.

Assimilation is described as a "melting pot" where individuals who belong to a minority group blend into the dominant culture. Assimilation seeks unity by downplaying differences. Assimilation is widespread among second-generation immigrants, where children adopt and blend into the culture of their new host country.

Segregation divides people into different rooms, keeping them apart and isolating groups, often leading to inequality. Segregation was rampant during the Jim Crow era in the United States when federal, state, and local laws were passed after the Civil War beginning in the 1870s to keep Black and White people apart. They could not attend the same public schools, sit in the same sections of a bus or train, live in the same neighborhoods, work in the same office spaces, shop in the same stores, or drink from the same water fountains.

Expulsion forces a group to leave a place during a forced relocation. Expulsion shows rejection and intolerance. It occurred during the Trail of Tears (1830–1850) when the U.S. government forced Native Americans to leave their lands in the southeastern United States.

Genocide is the most extreme and darkest pattern, driven by intense hatred and fear, aiming to eliminate an entire group completely. The Holocaust (1941–1945) is a horrifying example of genocide when the Nazis government in Germany systematically murdered six million Jews. Unfortunately, we continue to see examples of these negative patterns worldwide, such as when armed Hutu militias killed members of the ethnic minority Tutsi group in Rwanda in 1994, the killing and expulsion of the Islamic Rohingya people in Myanmar in 2015, and current atrocities in Ukraine.

To review, see:


5h. Differentiate between sex, gender, sexuality, and identity

  • How do sex, gender, sexuality, and identity differ in meaning and significance?
  • What are the distinctions between biological and social understandings of sex and gender?
  • How do societal norms and expectations shape individuals' experiences of sex, gender, and gender identity?

Sex refers to biological differences between males and females. Gender is more about how society sees and expects behaviors from each sex. Sexuality is who someone is attracted to. Gender identity is how a person feels about themselves, which includes factors like sex, gender, and sexuality. Each term holds its unique role in defining who we are.

Biologically, sex is often linked to physical characteristics like genitalia and chromosomes. Socially, gender is constructed through norms, roles, and expectations society attaches to each sex. Biology is about the body, while gender is about culture. The distinction between male and female is not just about anatomy but also about how we act and present ourselves.

Societal norms create a script for how people of different sexes and genders should behave. Boys are told to be tough; girls are directed to be nurturing. These norms influence how people identify and express themselves. If someone does not fit the norms, they may face discrimination or struggle with their identity. Society's expectations can either align with someone's identity or create a lot of internal and external conflicts.

To review, see:


5i. Compare gender socialization and stratification

  • How does gender socialization contribute to the construction of gender roles and norms?
  • How do different sociological perspectives explain gender stratification and inequality?
  • How do gender roles and norms impact individuals' opportunities and experiences?

Gender socialization is like a playbook we are handed from a young age. It teaches us what is expected of us as boys or girls. It influences how we dress, behave, and even what we dream of becoming. Through family, media, and peers, we absorb these gender roles and norms, shaping our identities.

Gender stratification is the inequality between men and women that is built into our culture and our institutions.

A functionalist would say that gender roles help society function smoothly by assigning tasks. Conflict theory sees gender inequality as a result of power struggles between genders. Symbolic interactionism digs into how people interact and create gender meanings through everyday interactions. These perspectives offer different angles to understand why gender inequality exists.

Think about how girls are often encouraged to pursue nurturing roles like nursing and early childhood education while boys are pushed toward becoming doctors, scientists, and engineers. These roles limit opportunities for individuals who want to do something different. Consider how societal expectations of masculinity can make it hard for boys to express their emotions openly. Gender roles shape our paths, influencing our education, careers, relationships, and mental health.

To review, see:


5j. Compare senior age groups (young-old, middle-old, and old-old)

  • What are the distinctions between the young-old, middle-old, and old-old age groups?
  • How do societal perceptions and expectations of senior citizens vary based on these age categories?
  • How do aging experiences and challenges differ among these senior age groups?

The young-old are usually 65 to 74 years old, just stepping into retirement. Middle-olds are 75 to 84, and the old-old are 85 and above. It is like a journey from early retirement to more advanced stages of life. Each group faces different challenges and experiences. Challenges evolve as people move through these stages, influencing their independence, social interactions, and overall quality of life.

For the young-old, there is still an expectation of staying active and independent. These individuals are encouraged to enjoy retirement, travel, and pursue active lifestyles. Middle-old individuals tend to face increased health challenges, but they are still seen as part of the community. However, these individuals often grapple with health issues and losing loved ones. Old-old individuals encounter stereotypes of frailty and dependence. Society's view of seniors shifts as they age, reflecting the realities they face. Old-old people deal with more physical limitations and may need assistance with daily activities.

To review, see Who Are the Elderly? and How Society Will Change as the Population Ages.


5k. Explain the process of aging through a biological, psychological, and social lens

  • How does aging manifest through biological changes in the body?
  • What psychological and cognitive changes are commonly associated with aging?
  • How do social interactions and societal contexts influence the experiences of aging?

As we age, our body's cells begin to slow down and repair less efficiently. Our skin wrinkles, bones become less dense, and our metabolism changes. Muscles may weaken, and senses such as vision and hearing can decline. Our body's machinery gradually wears down over time. Memory may not be as sharp, and processing information can take longer. The brain's processing speed decreases. Some may experience mood changes, such as increased vulnerability to depression. However, wisdom often grows with age as we learn from experiences and develop better emotional regulation.

Social interactions are like nutrients for our well-being as we age. Having friends and family around can combat feelings of isolation. Society's view of aging also matters. If it is positive, people may embrace aging with enthusiasm. If it is negative, seniors may internalize stereotypes and feel like they have become invisible to the rest of the world. Social support and how society values older individuals play a significant role in shaping the aging experience.

To review, see:


Unit 5 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

  • absolute poverty
  • aging through biological, psychological, and social lenses
  • assimilation
  • dependency theory
  • discrimination
  • distribution of resources
  • ethnicity
  • expulsion
  • extreme poverty
  • gender
  • gender identity
  • gender socialization
  • gender stratification
  • genocide
  • global stratification
  • local stratification
  • middle-old
  • modernization theory
  • old-old
  • pluralism
  • prejudice
  • race
  • relative poverty
  • senior age groups: young-old, middle-old, old-old
  • segregation
  • sex
  • Sexuality
  • social stratification
  • societal norm
  • stereotype
  • young-old