POLSC232: American Government

The term "bureaucrat" dates from the early 19th century. "Bureau" referred to the desk of a French government official. The term was soon linked with the suffix "–ocracy" to describe government generally or "rule by people at desks." Bureaucracy typically refers to an administrative structure staffed by a professional body of officials. In the United States, "bureaucrat" gradually evolved to refer to a career government employee. However, bureaucracy does not always apply to the government. Bureaucracy can exist within any large organization or company with a rigid set of rules and procedures for operating. Nonetheless, government bureaucracies face special challenges because they must report to competing political authorities and work within the constitutional frameworks of shared powers and checks and balances.

The federal bureaucracy in the United States started out very small. In 1790, the entire federal bureaucracy consisted of one office to deal with foreign affairs. The first major executive departments were created under President George Washington: the Department of State, Treasury, and War (later renamed the Department of Defense). The heads of the two former departments, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton, respectively, clashed repeatedly and exercised a profound impact on American history. Hamilton was a Federalist and represented the urban mercantile interests of the seaports. Jefferson represented the Anti-Federalists and spoke for the rural and southern interests. The debate between the two concerned the power of the central government versus that of the states, with the Federalists favoring the former and the Anti-Federalists advocating states' rights.

Most of the employees in the early federal bureaucracy were drawn from upper-class, white male elites. However, by 1829 President Andrew Jackson introduced the "spoils system" – political appointments made by the president on the basis of party loyalty. This system was based that government would be more responsive and effective if the president's supporters held key federal posts. However, throughout most of the 19th century, the spoils system became uncontrollable and was sullied by bribery and poor performance. In addition, presidents would spend an inordinate amount of time sifting through the thousands of job requests among party workers, meeting with them, and signing off on approval letters.

Perhaps the presidential administration of President Ulysses S. Grant saw the most notable example of the spoils system run amok. Grant faced financial corruption charges or scandals in all federal departments during his two terms in office. By habit, President Grant was fiercely loyal and protective of those he befriended and trusted. This and his inability to establish personal accountability among his cabinet members and other subordinates facilitated many scandals. Although personally honest with his own money matters, Grant had difficulty in spotting corrupt individuals. In total, there were 11 scandals involving political appointees directly associated with Grant's two terms.

The problems with the spoils system reached its zenith when Charles Guiteau assassinated President James Garfield in 1881. Guiteau believed that he was largely responsible for Garfield's presidential victory and insisted that he be awarded an ambassadorship. His personal appeals to Garfield and members of his cabinet were continually rejected until he was finally told never to return to the White House.

On July 2, 1881, Guiteau laid in wait for Garfield at the Baltimore and Potomac train station in Washington, D.C., where Garfield and his wife were en route to a vacation in New Jersey. Guiteau stepped forward and shot Garfield twice in the back.

After a long, painful battle with infections, Garfield died on September 19th. Garfield's assassination awakened public awareness and prompted Congress to pass civil service reform legislation. Senator George Pendleton, an Ohio Democrat, urged Garfield's successor, Chester A. Arthur, to sign the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law, which he did in 1883. This act essentially reversed the "spoils system." Office appointments would instead be awarded on merit and competitive examination. The law made illegal the long-time practice of giving money or service to obtain a federal appointment. The act also made it unlawful to fire or demote employees who were covered by the law for political reasons. The Civil Service Commission enforced this act.

Source: Saylor Academy
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