PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

Read this text and watch the video that follows.

We call psychology a social science. Watch this video to explore how psychology fits within the other sciences. How is psychology a unique discipline?

This text describes the progression of psychological thought: from its early beginnings in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) in Leipzig, Germany, to its importation to the United States, to the series of theories that dominated the mid-20th century.

What aspects of psychology were those who follow the behaviorist approach reacting to? What are some ethical concerns associated with Stanley Milgram's (1933–1984) research on obedience?

Read this text, which describes the diversity of approaches within psychology.

Read this text to explore various divisions within psychology according to the American Psychological Association (APA), the primary professional organization of our discipline. Pay attention to the career opportunities it presents for those who have earned psychology degrees.

Wilhelm Wundt is credited with founding the field of psychology through his research using a technique called introspection. Watch this video, which explains introspection and its influence on the school of thought known as structuralism.

This video explains how psychology was strongly influenced by the theory of evolution, which was critical in founding the school of thought known as Functionalism.

Watch this video, which explains how psychology breaks down the mind-body question.

In the United States, psychology quickly moved from an evolutionary perspective with Functionalism to a behavior-based perspective. Watch this video, which explains Watson's perspective of behaviorism.

Read this text, which introduces the scientific method, which involves making a hypothesis or general premise, deductive reasoning, making empirical observations, and inductive reasoning,

Read this text, which explores several research methods psychologists use. Make sure you can answer the following questions.

• The conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were potential participants in a case study. Can you describe other circumstances where this research approach might be helpful? Explain your answer.
• Reality television programs presumably provide a realistic portrayal of the behavior of the featured characters. However, our text states that this rarely occurs. What changes could producers adopt to display a more honest and realistic portrayal of their behavior?
  
• Aside from biomedical research, what other research areas could benefit from longitudinal and archival research?

As you read this text, consider the following research and correlation questions.

At the beginning of the text, we learn about research that suggests there is a correlation between eating cereal and weight. Cereal companies that present this information in their advertisements could lead someone to believe that eating more cereal promotes a healthier weight. Why would they make this claim? What arguments could you make to counter this cause-and-effect claim?

Recently, a study published in the journal Nutrition and Cancer established a negative correlation between coffee consumption and breast cancer. It found that women who consumed more than five cups of coffee daily were less likely to develop breast cancer than those who never consumed coffee (Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & El-Sohemy, 2013). Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says, "Coffee Protects Against Cancer". Why is this headline misleading, and why would a more accurate headline draw less interest?

Sometimes, it can be difficult to obtain true random sampling. Many researchers use convenience samples as an alternative. For example, one popular convenience sample might involve students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses. What are the implications of using this sampling technique?

Read this text. Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings in many scientific disciplines. This process is normally conducted anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being reviewed does not know who is reviewing the article, and the reviewers are unaware of the author's identity. Why is peer review an important part of the scientific process?

Some argue that animal research is inherently flawed from an ethical standpoint because, unlike human participants, animals do not consent to be involved in research. Do you agree? Since an animal does not consent to be involved in a research project, what sorts of extra precautions should scientists take to ensure they receive the most humane treatment possible?

Watch this lecture on research methods in psychology. Pay close attention to why correlation does not imply causation and how other variables can influence a relationship between two factors.

This text explores how genes and evolution affect behavior, explains the difference between genotype (our genetic makeup) and phenotypes (how our genes are expressed in appearance and behavior), and discusses the importance of gene-environment interactions.

The theory of evolution by natural selection requires the variability of a given trait. Why is variability necessary, and where does it come from?

Twin and adoption studies provide an opportunity to understand the role genes and the environment play in determining behaviors. Watch this video, which explains how scientists conduct these studies and how these comparisons help us answer questions.

Read this text on the risk factors for developing schizophrenia. There are important genetic contributions to the likelihood that someone will develop schizophrenia, with consistent evidence from family, twin, and adoption studies.

Read this text. Cocaine has two effects on synaptic transmission: it impairs the reuptake of dopamine and causes more dopamine to be released into the synapse. Should we classify cocaine as an agonist or antagonist? Why?

Drugs such as lidocaine and novocaine act as Na⁺ channel blockers. In other words, they prevent sodium from moving across the neuronal membrane. Why does this effect make these drugs such effective local anesthetics?

Watch this video on the anatomy of a neuron. Pay attention to what a neuron looks like and how a neuron transmits signals. Think about how many signals are transmitted at any given time. Human beings are made up of very complex programming!

Watch this video on the action potential mechanism, which is essential for neural communication.

Watch this summary of neuron action potentials.

Watch this video, which explains the types of neurotransmitters and how they excite or inhibit neurons. Some common neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Acetylcholine and norepinephrine are excitatory neurotransmitters, while dopamine, serotonin, and GABA are inhibitory.

Watch this video, which expands on the type, structure, and function of neurotransmitters.

As you read this text, pay attention to the implications of compromised immune function due to exposure to chronic stress. Be sure to study Figure 3.14, which illustrates the effects of sympathetic nervous system activation. How do all of these components affect the fight or flight response?

The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. Watch this video to understand how, together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its parts.

Before the advent of modern imaging techniques, scientists and clinicians relied on autopsies of people who suffered brain injuries that caused behavioral changes to determine how different areas of the brain were affected. As you read this text, pay attention to the limitations associated with this kind of approach. Which of the techniques offers viable options for determining how activity in the reticular formation is related to sleep and wakefulness? Why?

Watch this video on phantom limb pain to understand how sensory neurons transmit information. This condition can affect people who have had an amputation.

As you read this article, pay attention to the video on split-brain operations. Test your knowledge by describing a split-brain patient and at least two important aspects of brain function these patients reveal.

Read this text. The nervous and endocrine systems both use chemical messengers. What properties do these two systems share? What properties are different? Which one is faster? Which one results in long-lasting changes?

Watch this video on the endocrine system and familiarize yourself with the major glands and hormones.

Watch this lecture on the brain and its importance to the study of psychology.

Read this text. Humans are generally considered diurnal, which means we are awake during the day and sleep at night. However, many rodents are nocturnal. Why do you think different animals have such different sleep-wake cycles?

If the theories that claim sleep is necessary to restore and recover from daily energetic demands are true, what is the relationship between an individual's total sleep duration and their level of activity? Why is it problematic for healthcare professionals to rotate their work shifts? What should hospitals do to alleviate potential problems?

This video explains circadian rhythms in more detail.

We often see evidence of circadian rhythms when we travel across time zones. Watch this video for some sound strategies for reducing the effects of jet lag (disrupted circadian rhythms when traveling by jet).

Read this text, which explains the difference between REM and non-REM sleep, the characteristics of the four stages of non-REM sleep, and the role each type and stage play in learning and memory. Hint: Plan to get a good night's sleep after studying this section, so you will be sure to remember it!

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, believed that dreams give us insight into our unconscious mind. The content of our dreams provides clues into our unconscious. What are some criticisms of this perspective? Some people claim we act out our dreams during sleepwalking and talking in our sleep. Why does the text suggest this theory is unlikely?

Read this text. Therapists often suggest that people who suffer from insomnia should spend less time doing activities if they are awake in bed. Why do you think spending time awake in bed might interfere with our ability to fall asleep? How is narcolepsy with cataplexy similar to and different from REM sleep?

Watch this video about sleep disorders.

Read this text. The negative health consequences of alcohol and tobacco products are well-documented. However, many consider a drug like marijuana to be safe, if not safer, than legal drugs.

Why do you think marijuana use continues to be illegal in many parts of the United States? Why is it still important to develop tobacco cessation programs in addition to educating people about the dangers of using tobacco products?

This video explains substance use disorders as chronic medical conditions, the stigma surrounding substance use disorder, and treatment approaches.

Review this page which describes the acute effects and the health risks of both legal and illegal drugs.

Read this page on drugs, their effects on the brain, and how psychological and physiological addictions form.

Read this text. If you are interested in learning more about the science of drugs, the brain, and behavior, we encourage you to explore the U.S. National Institute of Drug Abuse website for more information on addiction prevention, health, treatment, and recovery.

As you read this text, think about the advantages of researching the potential health benefits of hypnosis. What studies are most convincing regarding the effectiveness of using meditation to treat physical and mental disorders?

Read this text. Not everything we sense is perceived. Do you think there could ever be a case where something could be perceived without being sensed? Can you think of an example of how a noticeable difference can change as a function of stimulus intensity? Why do you think other species have such different ranges of sensitivity for visual and auditory stimuli compared to humans?

Watch this lecture on sensation and perception.

Read this text. Why do you think humans are especially sensitive to sounds with frequencies that fall in the middle portion of the audible range?

This video explains waves and wavelengths.

As you read this text, compare the two theories of color perception. Are they completely different? Color is not a physical property of our environment. What function (if any) do you think color vision serves?

Watch this video about color perception.

Watch this video, which describes how we process our visual field and how information from the right and left visual field is broken down and sent to the brain.

Read this text. How does sound localization facilitate survival from an evolutionary perspective? How can we use temporal and place theory to explain our ability to perceive the pitch of sound waves with frequencies up to 4,000 Hz?

Watch this video about the structure of the ear and auditory system. Pay attention to how sound waves are created and perceived and the different functions of the inner and outer ear.

Read this text on the basic functions of the chemical senses, and then move on to the basic functions of touch and balance. Many people experience nausea while traveling in a car, plane, or boat.

How do you explain the function of sensory interaction? How would you respond to someone who says they would do anything not to feel the pain associated with significant injury? Do you think a person's sex influences the way they experience pain? Why do you think this belief is true or false?

Watch this video to learn more about the structures and functions involved in our senses of taste and smell.

Read this text to learn more about Gestalt psychology, especially the figure-ground principle, the Gestalt principles of grouping, and the concept of perceptual set. What does the claim that "the whole is different from the sum of its parts" mean in the context of perception? Look at this figure. How would you influence those who see a duck or a rabbit?

Watch this video on how magicians use the Gestalt concept of good continuation in their acts.

This video shows how all of our senses are subject to illusions and that our perception is most accurate when all of our senses can work together.

Read this text, which explains and defines learning. It discusses the difference between instincts and reflexes and the three basic forms of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are they alike? How do they differ? What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?

Read this text to learn how classical conditioning occurs and the processes that affect classically conditioned associations.

How would you respond to these questions? If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to water, what are the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the conditioned response (CR)? Explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are considered opposites. How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

Watch this video on classical conditioning, which is important as both a behavioral phenomenon and a method to study simple associative learning.

Watch this video, which illustrates John B. Watson's study of Little Albert and how it relates to classical conditioning.

Read this text, which discusses the definition of operant conditioning, describes the difference between reinforcement and punishment, and introduces reinforcement schedules. Make sure you can respond to these questions. What is a Skinner box, and what is its purpose? What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? What is shaping, and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to roll over?

Watch this video to learn more about Skinner's operant conditioning: rewards and punishments.

Read this text to learn about observational learning, the modeling process, and the pro- and antisocial effects of observational learning.

What is the effect of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling? Take this scenario. Let's say Cara is 17 years old. Cara's mother and father drink alcohol every night. They tell Cara that drinking is bad and she should not do it. Cara goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think Cara will do? Why?

Watch this video, which explores Social Learning Theory in more detail, including Bandura's controversial experiments on childhood aggression, where he observed children who were put into a room with a Bobo doll.

Read this text, which defines cognition, explains how to distinguish between concepts and prototypes, differentiates natural and artificial concepts, and will help you recognize schemata. Can you describe an event schema that you would notice at a sporting event? Why do event schemata have so much power over human behavior?

Read this text, which explains how complex language is. You will learn about the components of language, how language skill develops, and the relationship between language and thinking.

How do words represent our thoughts and values? Could grammatical errors actually indicate language acquisition in children? How might a learning disability like dysgraphia or dyslexia affect a child's educational and school experience?

Watch this video, which reviews the components of language and language acquisition in more detail.

As you read this text, pay attention to the concept of functional fixedness. How can you overcome it to help solve problems? How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a problem?

Watch this video, which reviews problem-solving, biases, and judgment errors in more detail.

Read this text, which defines intelligence, explores the theories of intelligence, and distinguishes between intelligence, emotional intelligence, and creativity. Can you describe a situation in which you might need to use practical intelligence? What is a situation where cultural intelligence would help you communicate better?

Read this text. Why do you think theorists define intelligence in different ways? Compare and contrast the benefits of the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler's IQ tests.

Watch this video, which reviews intelligence and general intelligence theory in more detail.

Watch this video, which reviews what psychologists mean when they talk about creativity, creative thinkers, and the components of creativity.

As you read this text, consider what evidence exists for a genetic component to an individual's IQ. Describe the relationship between learning and intellectual disabilities to intelligence.

Watch this short video on how our thoughts about IQ and intelligence affect our lives.

As you read this text, pay attention to the similarities and differences between implicit and explicit memory. Can you name and describe the three stages of memory according to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model? Compare and contrast two ways we encode information.

Watch this video to learn about implicit and explicit memories.

Watch this lecture on the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (or modal) of memory.

Watch this lecture on the divisions of long-term memory: procedural, declarative, semantic, and episodic.

As you read, think about what might happen to your memory system if you sustained damage to your hippocampus.

Watch this video, which explains how neurons become activated to store a memory.

As you read this text, make sure you can compare two types of interference and two types of amnesia.

Watch this video, which describes a man who developed retrograde amnesia after a bout of heat stroke.

As you read this text, make sure you can describe the self-reference effect and explain how it can help you study more effectively. Imagine you and your roommate spend the entire night studying for your psychology exam. You think you know the material, but the next morning you suggest you study for another hour before the test. How do you respond when your roommate asks why you think this is a good idea?

As you read this text, make sure you can describe the nature vs. nurture controversy. Can you explain how these two processes might influence a certain trait? How would you compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development?

Read this text. Why should we only use developmental milestones as a general guideline for normal child development? What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each. Why was Carol Gilligan (1936– ) so critical of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.

Read this text. Why is prenatal care so important? What happens during the embryonic and fetal stages of development? Describe some newborn reflexes and explain how they promote survival. Compare and contrast four parenting styles and describe the kinds of childhood outcomes we can expect from each. What is emerging adulthood, and what factors have contributed to this new stage of development? What makes a personal quality part of someone's personality?

Watch this video on prenatal development. Pay attention to how the fetus develops in the mother's womb.

Watch this lecture on social and emotional development in infancy.

Read this text. How do psychologists define the five stages of grief? Can you think of examples of reactions you have had (or witnessed) that exemplify these five stages? What do you think about this progression? What are some benefits and drawbacks of hospice care?

Watch this video, which discusses the process and value of grief.

Read this text. How do you think someone who espouses an arousal theory of motivation explains visiting an amusement park? Teachers often use concrete rewards to increase adaptive behaviors. Do you think these rewards could disadvantage students who are intrinsically motivated to learn? Can you point to the educational implications of this situation?

Watch this video, which compares intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Watch this video, which describes Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Read this text. Many scientists use the BMI index to classify people in terms of weight and body fat. Since we calculate BMI solely on weight and height, how can this number be misleading? Why are White women from industrialized, Western cultures at the highest risk for suffering from eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia nervosa?

Watch this video, which describes Anorexia Nervosa.

Read this text. Many scientists question the validity and quantity of past research that focused on how individuals develop their sexual orientation. For example, they are concerned the participants were not representative of the population. Do you think their skepticism is warranted? There is no reliable, scientific evidence that conversion therapy works. What evidence would convince you that an individual has successfully converted their sexual orientation?

Watch this video, which describes the sexual response cycle.

Read this text. Imagine a venomous snake crawls up your leg after you take a drug that prevents your body from activating its sympathetic nervous system. What would the James-Lange theory predict about your experience? Why should we avoid making causal claims regarding the relationship between the volume of the hippocampus and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Watch this video, which describes the adaptive value of emotions.

Read this text, which discusses what makes a personal quality or how something becomes a part of someone's personality.

Read this text, which explains the main elements of psychodynamic theory. It will give you context for understanding the theories that come later in this unit. How is the expression "daddy's girl" rooted in the idea of the Electra complex? Describe the personality of someone who is "fixated" at the "anal stage".

Watch this video on Freud's ideas on the id, ego, and superego.

Watch this video, which explains Freud's stages of psychosexual development.

As you read this text, pay attention to what energizes extroverts and introverts. What did Karen Horney say about Freud's concept of penis envy?

Watch this video, which explains the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which was developed to assess traits Carl Jung described.

This video explains Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

As you read this text, compare the personalities of someone with high self-efficacy to someone with low self-efficacy. Then compare and contrast Skinner and Freud's perspectives on personality development.

Watch this video, which explains the learning theory. Note that the presenter refers to it as behaviorism, which is another term for the learning theory of personality.

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl Rogers (1902–1987) are two of the most influential humanistic psychologists. Maslow focused on our motives as an explanation of our personalities, whereas Rogers focused on the degree to which our parents were genuine, provided unconditional positive regard, and showed empathy towards us as we grew up.

Watch this video, which explains Carl Rogers' theory of personality.

As you read this text, consider how a temperament mix between parent and child can affect family life.

Read this text. How stable are the Big Five factors of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism during a person's lifespan? Compare the personality of someone who scores high on agreeableness with someone who scores low on agreeableness.

Watch this video, which explains the Big Five Personality Traits.

As you read this text, pay attention to why it is important for psychologists to consider cultural influences when they study personality.

Watch this video, which explains the role of culture on personality.

Read this text. Why do prospective employers use personality assessments to screen applicants? Why do clinicians give projective tests to their patients?

Watch this video, which explains personality assessment.

As you read this text, think about why atypical or unusual thoughts, feelings, or behaviors do not necessarily indicate the presence of a psychological disorder. Can you name an example?

Watch this video, which provides an introduction to a variety of mental disorders.

Watch this two-part lecture on mental illnesses.

Read this text. Make sure you are able to explain what the DSM-V is, the kind of information it contains, and why it is important to the study and treatment of psychological disorders. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) differs from the DSM in several ways. Can you name some key differences between these two classification systems?

Watch this video, which explains the DSM-V.

As you read this text, think about why the perspective you use to explain a psychological disorder is so important.

As you read this text, think about how cognitive theories of the etiology of anxiety disorders differ from learning theories.

Watch this video, which outlines seven types of anxiety disorders:

1. generalized anxiety disorder (GAD);
2. separation anxiety disorder;
3. social anxiety disorder (SAD);
4. panic disorder;
5. agoraphobia;
6. specific phobia; and 
7. obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

As you read this text, make sure you can describe the common elements of the three disorders it discusses: obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder.

Watch this video, which describes the characteristics of OCD.

As you read this text, list some of the risk factors associated with the development of PTSD following a traumatic event.

Watch this video, which explains PTSD.

As you read this text, make sure you can describe several of the factors associated with suicide.

Watch this video, which explains the difference between depression and bipolar disorder.

Read this text. Why is it so important to research and track individuals who show prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia?

Watch this video, which explains what it is like to have schizophrenia.

Read this text. The prevalence of most psychological disorders has increased since the 1980s. However, scientific publications regarding dissociative amnesia peaked in the mid-1990s and declined steeply through 2003. No fictional or nonfictional description of individuals showing dissociative amnesia following a trauma exists prior to 1800. How would you explain this phenomenon?

Watch this video, which explains five symptoms of dissociation: memory loss, derealization, feeling lightheaded, not feeling pain, and a loss of self-identity.

Read this text. Compare the factors that lead to the development of ADHD development with those that promote autism spectrum disorder.

Watch this video, which provides an overview of the symptoms of ADHD.

Read this text. Imagine a child has a genetic vulnerability to antisocial personality disorder. In what ways do you think the child's environment may have prompted the development of this personality disorder?

Watch this video, which explains the symptoms of personality disorders.

Read this text to explore how Western societies have treated people with psychological disorders throughout history. In 1963, the U.S. Congress emptied the nation's mental health institutions or asylums through a process we call deinstitutionalization because the conditions were so tragic and dreadful. Today, we deliver mental health services in community mental health centers, but many of the services they provide are inadequate. Statistics show that 26 percent of homeless adults living in shelters experience mental illness. Many people have been incarcerated because they are in unfortunate circumstances or because members of the community are frightened by the negative effects or anti-social aspects of their illnesses.

Read this text on psychotherapy and biomedical therapy. These treatments help people with psychological disorders like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.

Read this text that distinguishes between various treatment modalities and discusses group therapy's benefits.

Read this text which examines the goals of substance-related and addictive disorders treatment, what makes treatment effective, and describes how to treat comorbid disorders.

Read this text which explains how therapy incorporates the sociocultural model and describes the barriers ethnic minorities face when they try to access mental health services.

Read this text, which introduces this subfield and explores situational versus dispositional influences on our behavior. Pay attention to the explanations of fundamental attribution error and actor-observer bias. Finally, we examine self-serving bias and the just-world hypothesis.

Watch this introductory lecture on social psychology.

Watch this video, which provides details of the attribution errors we tend to make.

Read this text, which defines what psychologists mean by social roles, norms, and scripts and how they can influence our behavior. It describes Philip Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment (1971), where participants were randomly assigned to the roles of prison guards or prisoners in a fake prison set up in a basement at the university. Zimbardo wanted to explore the power of social roles and norms. The experiment ultimately had to be cut short due to participants' increasingly aggressive behaviors.

Watch this video, which details the Stanford prison experiment.

Read this text, which explores how we can change our attitudes: internally through cognitive dissonance (a psychological discomfort that arises from holding inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions – thoughts, beliefs, or opinions) and externally through persuasion. It also describes peripheral and central routes to persuasion.

Watch this video, which provides details of the attribution errors we tend to make.

Read this text, which describes two famous experiments.

Solomon Asch (1907–1996), a Polish-American pioneer in social psychology, focused on group behavior – specifically persuading members of a group to change their attitudes even if it is wrong. In his classic experiment, he found a conformity effect ("Asch effect") that occurs when a group convinces a member of an untrue fact. The person changes their attitude to conform to the consensus of the group.

Stanley Milgram (1933–1984), an American social psychologist, researched obedience to authority in his famous study at Yale University. He used confederates to pressure study participants to administer (fake) electric shocks to other people. The participants did not know the shocks were never administered, so many left his experiment assuming they had caused great bodily harm to another person.

Pay attention to the definitions for groupthink, group polarization, and social loafing.

Watch this video, which provides details of the Asch Conformity Study.

Watch this video, which provides details of the Milgram Obedience Experiment.

Read this text, which explains how prejudice and discrimination often result in instances of racism, sexism, ageism, homophobia, and transphobia. However, in extreme situations, these misconceptions can prompt individuals and groups to engage in crime, war, mass murder, and genocide. Eliminating these beliefs that lead to social injustice has become a rallying cry for our generation.

Watch this video, which provides an introduction to prejudice and stereotyping.

Watch this video, which explains the three components of prejudice.

Read this text, which analyzes hostile and instrumental aggression and the bystander effect. It also studies bullying and cyberbullying, a common form of aggression in our society.

Watch this video, which introduces aggression.

Read this text, which investigates prosocial behavior, such as altruism, a desire to help others even when the costs of helping another outweigh the benefits. Why do we form friendships and romantic relationships? In 1986, Robert Sternberg (1949– ) proposed that there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. These three components form a triangle that defines multiple types of love: it is known as Sternberg's triangular theory of love. We also explore the social exchange theory of relationships.

Watch this video, which discusses aggression and prosocial behavior.

Watch this lecture, which covers topics such as the Hawthorne effect, job analysis, interviews, training, performance appraisals, bias and protections in hiring, the Americans with Disabilities Act, job satisfaction, the work-family balance, and organizational culture.

Read this chapter on the field of I/O psychology. Pay attention to the distinction between industrial and organizational psychology. What does an industrial psychologist do on a daily basis? How is this different from an organizational psychologist? Is it accurate to use these two terms interchangeably?

Read this article, which outlines what an I/O psychologist does. Why do you think this might be a good career option for you, or why not?

This section focuses on human factors psychology, particularly the integration of humans and machines in the workplace. This field draws not only on psychology but also has roots in engineering and design. As you read, ask yourself what machines are important for your work and how you interact with them. Are there methods for improving those interactions?

Watch this lecture on stress. Pay attention to physical stressors as well as psychological enhancers.

Read this text to learn about stress and the stress process. Pay attention to the role of positive stress and familiarize yourself with the research by Walter Cannon and Hans Selye. After you read, you should be able to identify stressors in everyday life and in the workplace.

Read this article to familiarize yourself with the field of health psychology and its relation to medicine.

Watch this video on stressors. Pay attention to the four major categories of stressors.

Read this text to understand how stress can affect our immune and cardiovascular systems.

Watch this video on how your body, particularly your heart, responds to stress.

Watch this video to learn how you can cope with stress.

Read this text, which discusses coping with or regulating stress. Social support and control can be important tools for managing stress in our daily lives.

Watch this video, which explains how certain types of stress, such as depression, can affect our bodies. Pay particular attention to the role of learned helplessness and the effect of stress on your heart.

Positive psychology is uplifting and explores happiness and its elements. As you read this text, think about how you define happiness in your life. What do you think about positive psychology or the science of happiness? What emphasis should psychology place on happiness?

Read this article to learn about the subfield of positive psychology and how it can make a difference in people's lives.