ECON101: Principles of Microeconomics | Saylor Academy

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Time: 32 hours

College Credit Recommended

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Microeconomics is the brand of economics that pertains to consumer behavior and the economic decisions of producers and the government. It includes the topics of supply and demand, the elasticity of demand and supply, production costs, utility and profit maximization, and market structures.

When discussing the economy, we refer to the marketplace or economic system where the choices of all economic agents interact. This course explores how and why we make economic decisions and how our choices affect the economy. Each unit is a building block. By the end of this course, you will be able to grasp the major issues microeconomists face, including consumer and producer behavior, supply and demand, how different markets function, and the welfare outcomes of consumers and producers. We also examine how formal principles and concepts apply to real-world issues.
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Unit 1: Introduction to Economics
This unit sets the stage for our journey into the principles of microeconomics. We begin by defining economics and its foundations, emphasizing the concepts of scarcity, choice, and opportunity cost and the need for economic models and theories. Next, we delve into the trade-offs economic agents face when confronting scarcity and applying marginal analysis in their decision-making processes. Once we have discussed the introductory economic toolbox, we finish this unit by introducing basic economic models.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  
  explain the economic way of thinking;
  
  identify how individual economic agents make rational choices and optimize the use of scarce resources by responding to incentives and calculating opportunity costs;
  apply marginal analysis to make optimal choices by identifying whether choices are efficient; and
  identify basic economic models related to the circular flow of resources and the production possibilities frontier.
- 1.1: Economics Unveiled: A Beginner's Journey
  Many students believe economics is challenging due to its complex theories, mathematical components, and specific language. Some are initially anxious when they hear the word economics. But there is nothing to fear! Economics is simply a set of interesting questions organized around a simple fact: there are not enough resources to satisfy all our needs and wants. How do we decide?
  This section teaches that economics shapes how we understand everything around us. Analyzing how you got to drink that first-morning coffee or why you have decided to enroll in this course is economic thinking. Economics studies how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity. These can be individual, family, business, or societal decisions. If you look around carefully, you will see that scarcity is a fact of life.
  - Select activity Scarce Resources
    
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    Watch this video for examples of scarcity. We learn how to classify resources in economics and how to confront scarcity when making decisions on consumption and production.
  - Select activity Introduction to Microeconomics
    
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    Watch this video on the definition of economics, the essential role incentives play, and how studying economics shapes your mind. Make sure you understand the historical example.
  - Select activity Specialization
    
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    Is there anything you need that you do not have? Is there anything that you want that you do not have? Why? Write down your answers. When you finish this course, you will enjoy looking at them. Understanding microeconomics will give you a different perspective on how things work.
    The answer to the previous questions is that most of us do not produce the things we want or need; we buy them! While it may sound obvious, we need to have a source of income to buy these things. Yet, most of us never have enough to buy everything we want.
    One possible solution would be to produce all the goods we consume. Would this make sense? Most of us would have to learn how to create these items and would likely conclude that it is just not worth it. In 1776, Adam Smith introduced the concepts of division and specialization of labor in his book The Wealth of Nations.
    Watch this video, which explains how the division of labor enables workers to specialize in the tasks where they have an advantage.
  - Select activity Why the Division of Labor Increases Production
    
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    Read this text on how the division and subdivision of tasks increase production and enable firms to reduce the average cost of producing each unit (economies of scale).
  - Select activity Microeconomics versus Macroeconomics
    
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    In a capitalist economy with scarce resources, the market allows us to trade the resources needed for production and the goods and services produced. The price system determines this trading or exchange. We will analyze how the market works in Unit 2. For now, think of prices as an incentive that drives the behavior of consumers and firms. For example, how would you react to an increase in the price of butter?
    An increase in the price of butter is probably not a big deal. You can easily replace it with other products or consume less butter. Because your decisions are rational, many other consumers will make a similar decision. This rational behavior will impact the markets of butter, margarine, and cooking oils. However, these changes will probably not affect the national economy.
    The differences between individual market behavior and the national economy exemplify why we study micro and macroeconomics. Read this text on the difference between microeconomics, which focuses on individuals, households, workers, and businesses, and macroeconomics, which studies the economy as a whole.
    Microeconomics studies exchanges among individual consumers and firms in the market to purchase goods and services. In contrast, macroeconomics focuses on exchanges across all of the markets within a country. We consider the interrelated actions of consumers, businesses, government agencies, financial intermediaries, and global trading partners as they exchange resources, goods, and services and facilitate currency and quantity flows. Microeconomics examines how to achieve profit maximization. Macroeconomics explores how to achieve overall economic stability and growth nationally.
- 1.2: Scarcity, Choices, Incentives, and Opportunity Costs
  Why are you reading this unit? This question has countless answers. Microeconomics approaches queries like this from a fascinating perspective: what alternative activity would you engage in if you were not reading this unit? Your answer will uncover the rationale behind our first question.
  Here is our thought process. Your time is a limited resource, and you must decide how to allocate it. When you choose an option (such as reading this unit), you do so with an incentive (like improving your skills). However, you are also forgoing another activity that would have occupied your time. This simple paragraph introduces the relationship between four essential economic concepts: scarcity, choices, incentives, and opportunity costs.
  - Select activity Scarcity and Choice
    
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    Watch this video on scarcity and choice. How do we make choices based on our self-interest when resources are scarce? We know that satisfying unlimited wants is impossible. Finding ways to use scarce resources to optimize society's well-being is one of the most important tasks of economics.
  - Select activity Opportunity Cost and Trade-offs
    
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    You are already familiar with the concepts of scarcity, choices, and incentives. Opportunity cost is one of the most valuable economic concepts: it is the value of the next best alternative. For instance, consider the value of your next best alternative to reading this unit. What would you be doing if you were not reading this unit? Your response will vary depending on age, socio-cultural background, family structure, and other factors.
    Watch this video on opportunity costs and trade-offs. Opportunity cost and trade-offs are two fundamental economic concepts. They are all around us. Trade-offs arise from scarcity and choice. For instance, you face a trade-off when you decide between reading this unit or cooking dinner.
  - Select activity How Individuals Make Choices Based on Their Budget Constraints
    
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    Opportunity cost is about what you give up when you make a choice, not just the money you spend. For example, when you go to college, you are not just spending money on tuition and books; you are also missing out on other things you could be doing with your time. Similarly, when you go to the doctor, the cost is not just the money for the visit; it is also what you could be doing instead of waiting in the office.
    
    In economics, we often talk about scarcity and choice. Scarcity means we cannot have everything we want, so we have to make choices. The opportunity cost is what we give up when making those choices.
    Economists use the idea of a "budget constraint" to talk about making choices when you have a limited amount of money. Understanding opportunity cost helps you make better decisions about how to use your time and money.
    Pay attention to the example of Alphonso, which explores the concept of opportunity cost. For Alphonso, the opportunity cost of a burger is the four bus tickets he would have to give up to afford another one. He must decide whether or not to choose the burger depending on whether the value of the burger exceeds the value of the forgone alternative – in this case, bus tickets.
- 1.3: Economic Decision-Making: Budget Constraint and Thinking in Marginal Terms
  Every choice you make comes down to choosing between different options that are competing with one another. Here, we analyze how economic agents make decisions when faced with budget constraints. This decision-making process involves comparing the benefits and costs of consuming a little more or less of a certain good or service. In economics, we say economic agents think in marginal terms when they consume or produce a little more or a little less.
  - Select activity Budget Contraints
    
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    Drawing upon a simple analysis of the variables influencing the price of a cup of coffee, this video explains the fundamentals of budget constraints. You can use this resource to revisit the concept of opportunity cost introduced earlier.
  - Select activity Budget Line
    
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    Watch this video on the budget line and how to obtain it mathematically through equations.
  - Select activity Marginal Thinking and the Sunk Cost Fallacy
    
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    The budget constraint framework helps us understand that most choices in the real world are not about getting all of one thing or all of another – choosing a point at one end of the budget constraint or all the way at the other end. Instead, most choices involve marginal analysis, comparing the benefits and costs of choosing a little more or a little less of a certain good.
    Watch this video on marginal thinking to understand why it is a valuable tool for making optimal decisions. With everyday examples, Alex Tabarrok explains why thinking on the margin is one of the most fundamental economic concepts and how focusing on past decisions can lead to the sunk cost fallacy.
- 1.4: The Economic Toolbox: Interpreting Diagrams and Equations
  We can use mathematics to explain practically every important concept in microeconomics. Equations and diagrams help explain and illustrate economic concepts. Mathematics is a tool to help you grasp economic concepts and their relations.
  - Select activity Mathematics in Economics
    
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    Read this text on how mathematics can help you in your study of economics.
  - Select activity Graph Review
    
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    Watch this video to review how to interpret graphs. Graphs are essential for analyzing economic behavior because they enable us to understand the relationship between two or more factors. Feel free to skip this video if you feel comfortable interpreting graphs.
- 1.5: Economic Models
  When visiting a new city, the first thing we typically reach for is an online or printed map. When studying economics, you should first reach for economic models. They help simplify a reality that would be too vast to analyze otherwise. In this section, we analyze why economists use models and theories to simplify reality and how they use them. We also introduce two basic economic models: the production possibilities frontier and the circular flow model.
  - Select activity Models and Theories
    
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    Watch this video on why economists need models and theories to simplify reality. Once economic reality is simplified, it is easier to understand and predict its future behavior.
  - Select activity Ceteris Paribus
    
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    Remember that economics is a social science. We must deal with an important restriction: we cannot conduct experiments in a laboratory. In this sense, we confront constantly changing variables while seeking to understand the impact of these changes. A useful tool with a weird name helps us conduct economic experiments and build models: ceteris paribus (with everything else remaining constant)
    Watch this video on why economists must use ceteris paribus to build models and test theories.
  - Select activity The Production Possibilities Frontier and Social Choices
    
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    Now that we have embraced an economic mindset, let's explore some simple economic models and theories. We start with the Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF), a straightforward model of the production of two goods (or two services). It helps simplify the reality of attainable efficient production within a specific time frame. The PPF shows the goods and services an economy can produce – the possibilities, given the factors of production and available technology. The model specifies what it means to use resources fully and efficiently when a combination of goods is represented on the line.
    Read this text on the production possibilities frontier (PPF). Note the economic implications of the downward slope and the bowed-out shape of the PPF curve. Compare the meaning of producing on the curve versus inside the curve. What does it mean to move along the curve?
  - Select activity More on the Production Possibilities Frontier
    
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    Watch this video on the PPF to review how the diagram is constructed and how to identify attainable and unattainable production points when economic agents face scarcity.
  - Select activity Absolute and Comparative Advantage
    
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    While the PPF appears to be a basic economic model, it finds applications in complex economic scenarios, including the analysis of international trade. Read this text on absolute and comparative advantage, which uses the PPF and opportunity costs to analyze the rationale of international trade and the benefits countries derive from specializing based on comparative advantage.
  - Select activity Increasing Opportunity Cost
    
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    Watch this video to review the law of increasing opportunity cost as it applies when society moves between two different points in the PPF.
  - Select activity Allocative Efficiency and Marginal Benefit
    
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    Watch this video on allocative efficiency and marginal benefit using the production possibilities frontier. The PPF can illustrate two kinds of efficiency: productive and allocative. Make sure you understand that while the PPF shows many combinations that are productively efficient, only one of the productively efficient choices will be the allocatively efficient choice for society as a whole.
  - Select activity Circular Flow Model of Income and Expenditures
    
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    We wrap up this unit by introducing another essential model in Economics: the circular flow model, which pictures the economy as consisting of two groups – households and firms – that interact in two markets: the goods and services market, where firms sell, and households buy, and the labor market, where households sell labor to business firms or other employees.
    Watch this video on the circular flow model of income and expenditures. Make sure you understand the concepts related to the payments of the factors of production. Is income the same thing as revenue?
  - Select activity Economics, the Economy, and the Biosphere
    
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    The circular flow model is a fundamental economic concept. Read this text to better understand this model and its interactions with the broader economy. It explores the flows of resources between firms and households and interactions with the environment.
- Unit 1 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 1 Assessment
    
    Unit 1 Assessment Quiz
    
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    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 2: Supply and Demand
In this unit, we introduce the demand and supply model and the resulting market equilibrium for price and quantity. We will explore how markets are constantly affected by changes that affect prices and quantities. If the market is unaffected by failures or government intervention, we will see that prices and quantities tend to move toward the equilibrium benchmark.
"During the last decades, several challenges have significantly affected the egg industry, such as the increasing consumer demand for animal welfare, the need for more sustainable food production, and the growing human health and food security issues related to egg consumption."
(Agnese Rondoni et al., Trends in Food Science & Technology, 2020)
When you finish this unit, you will be able to analyze how these changes affect the prices of eggs and the quantity of eggs available in the market.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  
  define demand, supply, and market equilibrium;
  
  determine the equilibrium in a market under situations that cause shifts in demand and supply that affect changes in prices and quantities; and
  explain how demand and supply behave in the labor and financial markets.
- 2.1: Introduction to Demand and Supply
  Let's say you buy a shirt for $45. To make this transaction possible, you made a decision that you were willing to pay $45 or more for that shirt. Concurrently, the seller had to decide they would not sell the shirt for less than $45. How did your interests align with those of the seller in this scenario?
  - Select activity Introduction to Demand and Supply
    
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    Read this introduction to supply and demand.
- 2.2: Demand for Goods and Services
  Here, we focus on isolating the demand for goods and services. Our objective is to establish a law that explains demand behavior. We emphasize the distinction between the quantity demanded (a variable) and the demand (a function that shows the collection of price-quantity demanded combinations) to better understand the key factors influencing demand.
  - Select activity Demand for Goods and Services
    
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    Read this section. Make sure you understand the difference between the quantity demanded and the demand.
  - Select activity Law of Demand
    
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    Watch this video to review the law of demand and how to graphically obtain the demand curve from a demand schedule that gives you information on the quantity demanded at each price.
  - Select activity Change in Demand vs. Change in Quantity Demanded
    
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    While the information in the previous reading and video seems straightforward, confusing demand with quantity demanded is easy. Watch this video that reviews the difference and introduces the factors that change demand.
  - Select activity Changes in Income, Population, or Preferences
    
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    Now that you understand that demand represents the quantity of a good or service, consumers are willing and able to buy at each price (quantity demanded is the dependent variable reacting to changes in the independent variable – price), we can delve deeper into the factors influencing changes in demand for a product or service.
  - Select activity Shifts in Demand and Supply for Goods and Services
    
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    Read this section to ensure you understand why, for example, a rise in income, ceteris paribus, shifts the market demand for airplane tickets to Hawaii outward, resulting in a greater quantity demand at the same price. If you find yourself overwhelmed with new concepts, it is either time for a break or to review the concepts we have introduced so far in this course. If you decide to take a break, consider the opportunity cost!
  - Select activity Normal and Inferior Goods
    
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    When demand changes due to an income change, we must investigate how the quantity demanded reacts at the same price. If the quantity demanded of a product or service moves in the same direction as income, we call it a normal good or service. If it moves in the opposite direction, we call it an inferior good or service. Watch this video on normal and inferior goods.
  - Select activity Price of Related Products and Demand
    
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    Watch this video to ensure you understand that changes in the prices of related goods (substitutes or complements) affect the demand for a given product or service. Try to find examples that fit your consumption patterns and repeat the reasoning with your own examples.
  - Select activity Change in Expected Future Prices and Demand
    
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    Another factor that affects demand is the change in expected future prices. Have you ever delayed a purchase because you believed the price would drop? In this scenario, the current price remains unchanged, but your willingness to buy has shifted. Watch this video to understand how the distinction between current and expected prices can impact the demand curve.
  - Select activity Summing Up Factors That Change Demand
    
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    How do you feel now about the egg question/challenge posed at the beginning of this unit? Make sure you can graph demand shifts. Figure 3.9 summarizes the factors that can change demand and shift demand curves. Read the section. Review changes to demand when the product price does not change.
- 2.3: Supply of Goods and Services
  In life, we often spend more time consuming (demanding) goods and services than producing (supplying) them. Perhaps that is why students tend to find analyzing supply more complex. In this section, we examine the law of supply, which explains why producers supply more units as the price of a product rises. We differentiate between quantity supplied (a variable) and supply (a function) and explore the factors that shift the supply curve, just as we did with demand in the previous section. Remember, we are examining supply in isolation from demand. In section 2.4, we will bring them together and analyze their interaction.
  - Select activity Supply of Goods and Services
    
    Supply of Goods and Services Page
    
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    Read this section. Make sure you understand the difference between the quantity supplied and the supply.
  - Select activity Law of Supply
    
    Law of Supply Page
    
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    Watch this video to review the law of supply and how to obtain the supply curve from a supply schedule graphically. Make sure you understand that, as prices rise, producers are incentivized to produce more units.
  - Select activity Supply
    
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    Just like we did with demand, it is essential to highlight that supply (a function) is not the same as quantity supplied (a variable). Supply is the relationship between a range of prices and the quantities supplied at those prices. On the other hand, quantity supplied is a certain point on the supply curve that indicates the number of units produced at a given price.
    We can interpret supply as a function representing the minimum price a firm will accept to produce a specific quantity of a good or service. This supply function can change, as producers may choose to offer more or fewer units at the same price based on various factors. Can you think of factors that encourage a firm to produce more units at the same price?
    Watch this video to review the law of supply and to see how factors affecting supply shift the supply curve.
  - Select activity Summing Up Factors That Change Supply
    
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    Figure 3.15 summarizes the factors that change the supply of goods and services. Read the section on Summing Up Factors That Change Supply. Use this section to review changes to supply when the price of the product does not change.
- 2.4: Market Equilibrium and Demand and Supply Changes
  Now, you should be ready to place demand and supply together in the same analytical framework to analyze the entire market. As we move into the core concepts of microeconomics, remember to practice with the concepts and relations that you just learned.
  Recall the question at the beginning of this unit. How do your interests, as a consumer, align with those of a seller when seeking to purchase a specific good or service?
  In this section, we combine the relation between demand and supply into the demand and supply framework (model). The demand and supply model enables us to answer the following complex questions:
  Why did the price of aluminum cans rise during the COVID-19 pandemic?
  Why did the price of eggs sharply increase in January of 2023 in the U.S.?
  Why did Blockbuster file for bankruptcy in 2010 and close most of its stores?
  What do you expect to happen to the price of electric cars in the near future?
  - Select activity Market Equilibrium
    
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    Watch this video on market equilibrium using a graph so you can see how the demand and supply curves come together in the market.
  - Select activity Changes in Equilibrium Price and Quantity: The Four-Step Process
    
    Changes in Equilibrium Price and Quantity: The Four-Step Process Page
    
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    Read this text on the four-step process that identifies the equilibrium price. Do you understand the difference between a shift in demand or supply and a movement along the demand or supply curve? Can you think of real-world examples that can cause these to occur?
  - Select activity Changes in Market Equilibrium
    
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    Watch this video on how changes in demand and/or supply affect the market price and/or the market quantity. In Unit 1, we discussed using graphs to represent a simplified economic reality. Changes in demand and/or supply will shift the relevant curve. Consequently, it will affect the price and quantity, and the market will reach a new equilibrium point.
  - Select activity Self-Check Questions
    
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    Before we move on to the next section, try to solve the following questions, which cover central concepts in microeconomics you should understand.
- 2.5: Application of Market Equilibrium to the Analysis of the Labor Market and the Financial Markets
  In Unit 1, we discussed how economics intimidates some students because it uses mathematics, complex language, and abstract concepts. And yet, you are already equipped to tackle this complex question. In recent years, the world demand curve for copper shifted rightward due to continued economic growth in China and other emerging economies. Also, the costs of extracting the copper increased due to higher energy prices. What is the result?'
  We can use the simple demand and supply framework we developed in the previous sections to analyze almost any market. Most of us are especially interested in the labor market. In the circular flow model, we observed that we can consider labor as an input for producing goods and services.
  Labor, as an input, is owned by consumers (households). Consider this: only you can make the decision regarding whether you want to work or not (supply your labor). In this sense, workers establish the supply of labor (hours of work) while firms determine the demand for labor. So, what appears on the vertical axis of our labor market graph where we place prices? Yes, wages!
  - Select activity Demand and Supply at Work in Labor Markets
    
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    Read this text and watch the video that follows on the interaction between demand and supply in labor markets. Think about what equilibrium wage and equilibrium quantity mean in the labor market. This framework enables us to analyze the impact of government regulations such as the minimum wage. It also helps us understand the impact of other real-world events, such as migration, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the trade-off between leisure and work.
  - Select activity Labor Market Equilibrium
    
    Labor Market Equilibrium Page
    
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    Watch this video on the labor market equilibrium.
  - Select activity The Moral Economy of the Great Resignation
    
    The Moral Economy of the Great Resignation Page
    
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    The Great Resignation refers to the large increase in the number of people who quit their jobs since the summer of 2021 in many high-income countries. Read this abstract and introduction from this study for a multidisciplinary introduction to what lies behind this phenomenon. Use the demand and supply framework applied to the labor market to reflect on how the Great Resignation affects the labor market in terms of quantity (number of workers and hours) and price (wages).
  - Select activity Introduction to Financial Markets
    
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    Besides the labor market, we can also apply the basic tools of supply and demand to analyze financial markets. Some students find the term "financial" intimidating because they associate it with complex financial instruments. However, if you think of the financial market as a place where borrowers and lenders come together, it will seem less intimidating and make much more sense.
    Read this text introducing financial markets. Try to relate what you learn in this introduction to what you have already studied in this unit by answering this question: Why do firms need to do to raise funds when consumer demand is high?
  - Select activity Introduction to Interest
    
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    Now, we can use the supply and demand framework to explore how financial markets function. Since we usually measure price on the Y-axis, let's start by introducing the concept of the interest rate. Watch this video, which explains what the interest rate is and offers tips for steering clear of financial troubles.
  - Select activity How Businesses Raise Financial Capital
    
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    The demand side of a financial market is usually comprised of firms that seek to raise funds. Read this section to understand the relationship between financial capital and a firm's profits and analyze how firms choose between sources of financial capital.
  - Select activity How Households Supply Financial Capital
    
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    On the supply side, we can find households and firms that have accumulated savings and expect a given rate of return for the supply of these savings. Read this text to study the relationship between savers, banks, and borrowers and understand the differences between bonds, stocks, mutual funds, and commercial banks' deposits. Make sure you understand the trade-offs between return and risk.
    Ultimately, financial markets help allocate the economy's scarce resources to their most efficient uses by connecting borrowers (who demand financial capital) and savers (who supply financial capital).
- Unit 2 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 2 Assessment
    
    Unit 2 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 3: Elasticity and its Applications
In this unit, we delve into the concept of elasticity and its practical applications for how firms make pricing decisions and how governments analyze and make policy decisions. Put simply, elasticity measures responsiveness. It helps us understand why Netflix increases their prices for their Standard and Premium tiers more frequently, compared to their entry-level Basic plan. Government analysts also rely on elasticity to determine the extent of tax increases.
We can apply elasticity to demand and supply analysis. Elasticity measures how quantity responds to changes in the price of the product, the price of related goods, income, advertising, and more. Once you grasp the concept and its basic calculations, applications of elasticity in economic analysis are nearly limitless.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  explain the concept of elasticity as it applies to microeconomics;
  discuss price elasticity of demand and understand how to measure it;
  give examples of income elasticity of demand and cross price elasticity of demand and understand their results;
  explain price elasticity of supply and its applications;
  predict how elasticity affects revenue and pricing decisions; and
  discuss how tax incidence relates to the model of demand and supply and to elasticity.
- 3.1: The Concept of Elasticity
  According to the Cambridge Dictionary, The word elastic means "an elastic material is able to stretch and be returned to its original shape or size." Think of a rubber band. In the context of economics, elasticity measures how much a variable will "stretch" in response to a change in a related variable.
  In this section, we introduce the concept of elasticity as it is studied in microeconomics. While this concept can be challenging due to its various types and the necessity to make calculations and interpret the results, you will discover it is not only highly useful but also quite intuitive and easy to grasp.
  - Select activity Introduction to Elasticity
    
    Introduction to Elasticity Page
    
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    Read this introduction to the concept of elasticity. It offers examples that make it easier to understand why we need an economic tool to measure the degree of responsiveness of one variable to changes in another variable.
    In early 2019, Netflix announced its biggest price hike ever in the united States. Consequently, the company experienced a drop in subscribers for the first time since 2011. In April 2018, Amazon announced a 20 percent increase in the price of its Prime subscription, and... 53 percent of respondents to an eMarketer survey said the increase had no impact whatsoever on their subscription to the service.
    We can attribute the different reactions from Netflix and Amazon clients to various factors. Nevertheless, both companies benefit from understanding how their consumers react to changes in the price of their products. Do you think we should introduce "ceteris paribus" into this discussion?
- 3.2: Elasticities of Demand
  Now that you are familiar with the concept of elasticity as a measure of responsiveness, you are ready to apply it to the concepts you learned in Unit 2. We begin by analyzing how demand (quantity demanded) responds to changes in specific variables that affect it.
  
  As you know, the quantity demanded of a good or service reacts to changes in its price, and the price elasticity of demand tells us by how much. Additionally, the demand for a good or service also responds to changes in consumers' income, measured by the income elasticity of demand, and the prices of related items, indicated by the cross-price elasticity of demand.
  - Select activity Price Elasticity of Demand
    
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    Watch this video on calculating the price elasticity of demand over the demand curve graph and with the elasticity formula.
  - Select activity Elasticity of Demand
    
    Elasticity of Demand Page
    
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    Revisit the previous explanation by watching this video and further your understanding by interpreting the results of price elasticity of demand. Pay close attention to whether we are using the absolute value to calculate elasticity. Avoid memorizing the interpretation of the results; they are so intuitive that it is not worth occupying your brain's storage capacity with these details. Be sure to grasp the concept that elasticity is a unit-free measure.
  - Select activity Income Elasticity of Demand
    
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    Let's now delve into the analysis of income elasticity of demand. Watch this video to explore this concept, paying close attention to the interpretation of results. Income elasticity of demand results provide valuable information for both firms and the government. They help us understand how much consumers' quantity demanded reacts to a change in income at a specific price and determine whether, at that given price and within a particular income bracket, the analyzed good or service is normal or inferior.
  - Select activity Cross Elasticity of Demand
    
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    The next elasticity of demand we will discuss is the cross-price elasticity of demand. There is no need to be intimidated by the complex sound of its long name!
    The cross-price elasticity of demand simply measures the percentage change in the quantity demanded of one good or service due to the percentage change in the price of a related good or service. We are sure Elon Musk would like to know how much the quantity demanded of the Tesla Cybertruck would change in percentage terms in response to a given percentage change in electricity prices.
  - Select activity Polar Cases of Elasticity and Constant Elasticity
    
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    You have already observed that elasticity calculations can yield diverse results. Economists classify results of zero, infinite, or one as extreme or polar cases. Read the explanation, and make sure you understand that while these outcomes are not common, they serve as valuable analytical benchmarks.
    In conclusion, understanding the elasticity of demand is essential for businesses and policymakers alike. It provides valuable insights into how changes in prices and income can affect consumer behavior and market dynamics.
    You should now be able to discuss complex questions such as:
    Why is food demand more income-elastic in low-income communities than in wealthier communities?
    How does the price elasticity of demand change in the long run?
    Why do you think airline seats in business class have an estimated elasticity of demand of 0.42, while seats in economy class have an estimated price elasticity of 0.60?
    What is the relationship between price elasticity and position on the demand curve? For example, what happens to the measured elasticity as you move up the demand curve to higher prices and lower quantities?
- 3.3: Elasticity of Supply and Its Applications
  Now that you have fully grasped the concept of elasticity, let's apply it to supply. Recall from Unit 2 that supply illustrates the quantity a firm is willing to provide at each market price. Before you proceed, take a moment to assess whether you can define and calculate the price elasticity of supply.
  - Select activity Elasticity of Supply
    
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    Well done! Price elasticity of supply measures the percentage change in quantity a firm supplies in response to a percentage change in price. Watch this video to review the concept of price elasticity of supply, master its calculation, and understand the interpretation of the possible results.
  - Select activity Price Elasticity of Supply Determinants
    
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    Here is some food for thought before we delve into the next section: Do you believe the housing supply in your city is price elastic or price inelastic? Does your perspective shift when you consider a longer time frame? Watch this video on the determinants of the price elasticity of supply.
  - Select activity Is the Elasticity the Slope?
    
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    At this stage, your mind is brimming with new concepts, challenges, and ideas. You have examined numerous diagrams, and it is quite common to mistake elasticity at a specific point for the slope. This reading will help you clarify the distinction.
- 3.4: Elasticity, Revenues, and Pricing Decisions
  Throughout this unit, we have emphasized that elasticities of supply and demand are essential tools for the decision-making process of both firms and policymakers. In this section, we further explore the relationship between revenues and elasticity.
  Before we begin, take a moment to review the concept of revenue to make sure everything is clear with income. Our course resources define income as "a flow of money received, often measured on a monthly or an annual basis," and revenue as "income from selling a firm's product, defined as price times quantity sold."
  - Select activity Elasticity and Pricing
    
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    Read this section that discusses the relationship between price elasticities of supply and demand, pricing strategies, and revenues. Consider inserting your own relevant examples when you study Table 5.3. Pay particular attention to the analysis of whether firms can pass higher costs on to consumers, depending on the price elasticity of demand.
  - Select activity Total Revenue and Elasticity
    
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    Watch this video If you need additional explanations on the relation between total revenue and the price elasticity of demand for a product.
- 3.5: Elasticity and Its Applications
  Elasticity is a concept that often prompts the thought, "Why did I not consider this earlier?" It serves as a fundamental analytical tool. For example, organizations like the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the united Nations) use income and price elasticities of demand, among other variables, to assess food security (see https://www.fao.org/3/Y2876E/y2876e08.htm). Researchers apply these elasticities to study the distribution of essential pharmaceutical products in developing countries (see https://www.fao.org/3/Y2876E/y2876e08.htm). Policymakers, as we have mentioned, heavily depend on these measures when implementing new taxes or modifying existing ones.
  We usually associate revenues with companies or firms. However, governments also generate revenues, primarily through taxes. As we explore later in the course, governments aim to maximize their tax revenue to fund the provision of public goods and services.
  Before you studied this unit, you may have assumed, "All the government has to do is increase taxes to boost revenue for financing their expenditure." It is not that simple!
  Consider this scenario: if the government imposes a high tax on red meat, consumers may simply switch to alternative products (substitutes) and significantly reduce their demand for red meat. As you may have already noticed, this logic closely resembles that of pricing and revenues for a firm. Both firms and governments must carefully assess elasticities.
  - Select activity Taxes and Perfectly Elastic and Inelastic Demand
    
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    Watch these two videos on the relationship between taxes and two polar cases of demand elasticity: perfectly elastic and perfectly inelastic demand. You may need to go back to the end of section 3.2 and review the polar cases before you watch the videos.
  - Select activity Elasticity in Areas Other Than Price
    
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    Read this text to enhance your understanding of elasticity as it applies to labor markets. Wage elasticity allows firms to assess the extent to which workers respond by offering more work hours when wages increase. Use this analysis to revisit the labor market introduced in section 5 of Unit 2.
  - Select activity Elasticity Review
    
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    Watch this comprehensive video that summarizes most of what we have explored in this unit. Given its length, you may want to revisit it after completing the unit to ensure you have a thorough understanding of elasticity and its applications.
- Unit 3 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 3 Assessment
    
    Unit 3 Assessment Quiz
    
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    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 4: Markets and Maximizing Individual Behavior
You are now familiar with the workings of the market. You understand how changes in demand or supply affect prices and quantities for firms and consumers. In this unit, we revisit the demand and supply model to explore economic efficiency. Economic efficiency occurs if "the optimal amount of each good and service is produced and consumed."

We introduce the concepts of consumer and producer surplus to analyze how free markets increase overall welfare. Then, we apply these concepts to analyze the effects of price controls on prices, quantities, and market efficiency.

The market, on its own, does not always allocate resources efficiently. Economists talk about market failure when it falls short. We analyze how the government can alleviate these market failures.

This unit concludes with an introduction to the causes and ramifications of income inequality. While much debate exists on long-term inequality, economists can objectively measure the problem's scope and offer options to manage this economic phenomenon. Protracted poverty and inequality can cause long-term harm to an economy's development.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  
  explain how the maximization assumption helps us understand the behavior of consumers and firms;
  
  apply the concepts of consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus to understand the efficient or equitable allocation of resources when there is a change in demand or supply;
  
  apply efficiency analysis to understand the effects of the adoption of price controls;
  
  explain how consumers and firms use marginal benefit and marginal cost to make rational choices;
  
  explain how market failures are caused by externalities and public goods and identify the role of government intervention in alleviating them;
  
  apply marginal benefit and marginal cost analysis to show how society can achieve efficient solutions to environmental problems;
  
  explain how the Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient give insight into a country’s distribution of income and income inequality;
  
  distinguish between relative and absolute measures of poverty and explain the major factors that cause and prevent poverty in the United States; and
  
  illustrate how discrimination in the labor market affects the labor demand and labor supply curves.
- 4.1: Maximizing in the Market Place: Consumer Surplus, Producer Surplus and Social Surplus
  Let's say Beyoncé will perform at a stadium near your hometown in a few months. You absolutely adore her music. How much are you willing to pay for a ticket to go to her concert? Imagine you are willing to pay $150, and you find a ticket for $100. What is the economic significance of this situation? Why aren't tickets being sold for less than $100? In this section, we introduce and explore the concepts of consumer surplus and producer surplus as tools for measuring economic efficiency.
  - Select activity Demand, Supply, and Efficiency
    
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    Read this text on consumer surplus, producer surplus, and social (total) surplus to familiarize yourself with these concepts that enable us to measure economic efficiency.
  - Select activity Demand Curve as Marginal Benefit Curve
    
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    To understand the graphical analysis of consumer surplus, let's revisit the demand curve to interpret the relationship between price and quantity as a marginal benefit. You can watch this video on the demand curve as a measure of marginal benefit. If necessary, review the concept of marginal introduced in Unit 1. Pay special attention to the difference between value and price.
  - Select activity Consumer Surplus
    
    Consumer Surplus Book
    
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    Watch this video, which explains consumer surplus using a graph to help you grasp the concept and the calculation. Complete the practice questions to make sure you understand the calculation.
  - Select activity How Much to Produce? Marginal Revenue and Marginal Costs
    
    How Much to Produce? Marginal Revenue and Marginal Costs Page
    
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    Watch this video, which explains how an apple farmer decides the optimal number of apples to pick and sell. This explanation will help you understand how we measure producer surplus.
  - Select activity What Is Producer Surplus?
    
    What Is Producer Surplus? Book
    
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    Watch this video, which explains consumer surplus using a graph to help you grasp both the concept and the calculation. Complete the practice questions to make sure you understand the calculation.
  - Select activity Equilibrium, Allocative Efficiency, and Total Surplus
    
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    If you guess our next step is to combine consumer and producer surplus, you are right on track. We call the sum of consumer and producer surplus social surplus, total surplus, or economic surplus. Social surplus is greater at the equilibrium quantity and price than it would be at any other quantity.
    This demonstrates the economic efficiency of the market equilibrium. Furthermore, at the efficient market quantity (the equilibrium quantity), it is impossible to increase consumer surplus without reducing producer surplus, and vice versa.
    Watch this video, which reviews consumer and producer surplus and introduces total surplus in the context of efficiency.
- 4.2: Price Controls and Efficiency
  In January 2022, the price of eggs spiraled out of control in the united States. After so many years of limiting my scrambled eggs breakfast to control my cholesterol levels, it turned out it was fine to eat one egg per day as long as you could afford it! Jokes aside, should the federal government have imposed a maximum price for eggs?
  In this section, we use the demand and supply framework, along with the analysis of efficiency based on total surplus, to assess whether adopting price controls (such as price floors and price ceilings) is justified. We introduce another new concept to gain a comprehensive understanding of the impact of price controls: deadweight loss. This is an incredibly valuable concept despite its ominous name.
  - Select activity Demand, Supply, and Efficiency
    
    Demand, Supply, and Efficiency Page
    
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    Read this text on the economic inefficiency of price ceilings and price floors. We use deadweight loss to measure this inefficiency. Make sure you understand the concept of deadweight loss and how to measure it on the demand and supply graph.
  - Select activity Rent Control, Deadweight Loss, Minimum Wage, and Price Floors
    
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    The efficiency approach to price controls might be easier to understand if we use familiar examples, such as rent controls and minimum wage. Watch these two videos for an economic efficiency analysis of the adoption of a maximum price on rental housing (price ceiling) and the implementation of a minimum wage (price floor). You can use the minimum wage video to review the main features of the labor market from Unit 2.
  - Select activity Why Do Governments Enact Price Controls?
    
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    Watch this video on President Nixon's wage and price controls in the 1970s to understand why governments enact price controls despite our economic analysis.
- 4.3: When Markets Fail: Externalities and Introduction to Public Goods
  Markets are usually good at efficiently using resources, but sometimes they fail. For example, if a market isn't competitive or property rights are unclear, it can lead to poor decisions. Many companies have benefited from government support for riskier projects. One big issue that can cause markets to fail is externalities, where decisions by companies or individuals affect others who don't have a say in the matter.
  - Select activity Introduction to Market Failure
    
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    Read this introduction to market failure and externalities. What role does government play in correcting market failure? How might externalities affect those not directly involved in a market transaction?
  - Select activity Externalities
    
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    Watch this video for an introduction to externalities. Learn the difference between positive and negative externalities and understand that many activities have social and private benefits and costs.
  - Select activity Positive Externalities of Innovation
    
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    Technology and innovation provide companies with a competitive edge and generate positive externalities. Read this text to explore why private firms in a market economy might underinvest in research and technology. This reading will enhance your understanding of positive externalities.
  - Select activity Positive Externalities
    
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    Watch this video on how additional production can generate positive externalities. When dealing with positive externalities, the government can enhance efficiency by implementing specific measures to reduce deadweight loss. As explained in the video, a tax credit for planting trees could offset the positive externality.
  - Select activity How Governments Encourage Innovation
    
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    Read this text on how governments promote innovation. Intellectual property rights, such as patents and copyrights, promote innovation by granting creators and companies exclusive rights over their inventions and creative works for a limited time. There are alternative policies for enhancing the rate of return on new technology, including government spending on research and development (R&D), tax breaks for research and development, and cooperative research efforts between government-funded institutions and the private sector.
  - Select activity Negative Externalities
    
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    Now that we have explored externality and positive externalities let's examine negative externalities. Watch this video on negative externalities. A negative externality is a cost a third party bears that results from consumption or production.
  - Select activity The Economics of Pollution
    
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    Pollution is one of the most commonly used examples of negative externalities. Read this text on the additional external costs (negative externality) specific production processes create. Make sure you understand that when a firm pollutes due to its production process, the supply curve no longer represents all social costs.
  - Select activity Taxes for Factoring in Negative Externalities
    
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    If firms had to cover the social costs of pollution, they would reduce pollution levels. This might lead to higher prices and decreased production. Watch this video on how governments use taxes to reduce negative externalities.
  - Select activity The Trade-off between Economic Output and Environmental Protection
    
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    Read this text, which applies the production possibility frontier we studied in Unit 1 to evaluate the trade-off between economic output and policies that protect and sustain the environment.
  - Select activity Public Goods
    
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    As we have studied, market failures occur when allocating resources in a market economy leads to an inefficient outcome. We have seen how positive and negative externalities can cause market failures. Now, we focus on public goods (goods or services that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous) as a source of an inefficient allocation of resources.
    Read this text on the two defining characteristics of public goods – they are non-excludable and non-rival. We explore public goods and related government intervention in more detail in Unit 8.
- 4.4: Poverty, Income Inequality, and Discrimination in the Labor Market
  In section 4.3, we analyzed the concept of market failure and its impact on private decision-making. Although private decisions are rational and driven by self-interest, they may not always lead to the maximization of net benefits for a specific activity. In this section, we focus on poverty, income inequality, and discrimination in the labor market as examples of market failures. We also examine how economists define poverty and measure inequality.
  The labor market approach introduced in Unit 2 does not account for situations such as the impact on families when a major local employer closes down. This framework also overlooks barriers to equitable labor market participation. In this section, we address the resulting income inequality.
  - Select activity Introduction to Poverty and Economic Inequality
    
    Introduction to Poverty and Economic Inequality Page
    
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    Read this introduction to the topic of poverty and income inequality, which are examples of market failures.
  - Select activity Speaking of Poverty Differently
    
    Speaking of Poverty Differently Page
    
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    Watch this video that explains poverty, a failure of society. We can only address this failure by creating a more inclusive society. "Poverty is often described as a problem of inequitable or unjust distribution of resources. But poverty raises questions of efficiency as well as equity." (Stout, 1993)
  - Select activity Drawing the Poverty Line
    
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    This text explains that poverty and income inequality are related yet distinct economic concepts. We determine poverty by the number of individuals who fall below a specific income threshold known as the poverty line, the income required for a basic standard of living. On the other hand, income inequality assesses how different groups in society share total income or wealth.
  - Select activity The Poverty Trap
    
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    Read this text and watch this video on how government programs can create a poverty trap with the programs they implement to reduce poverty. Decisions on whether it is better to work or stay home and receive government subsidies are especially difficult for workers with young children who must weigh the costs of childcare, transportation to and from the workplace, and other expenses such as clothing. Make sure you can calculate a budget constraint line that represents the poverty trap.
  - Select activity Why Is It So Hard to Escape Poverty?
    
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    Watch this video on why it is so difficult for individuals to escape poverty. Note that we will return to this topic in Unit 8.
  - Select activity Income Inequality: Measurement and Causes
    
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    While you are now familiar with poverty, its measurement, and its potential causes, there is still room for confusion between poverty and income inequality. As we have explained, these are related but distinct concepts. It is critical to establish clear definitions and measurements of income inequality as a separate issue, although it is related to poverty.
    Read this text on the sources of income inequality in a market economy, such as the changing composition of American households and shifts in the distribution of wages. What is a quintile, and how do they help economists measure income inequality? How does the Lorenz curve measure income inequality?
  - Select activity Is Inequality Inevitable?
    
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    Watch this video to review the Lorenz curve and learn how to calculate and interpret the Gini coefficient. Note that these concepts are usually described in more detail in macroeconomics. The video also explores whether a given society can avoid income/wealth inequality.
  - Select activity Employment Discrimination
    
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    We close this section with an analysis of how an efficient labor market can discriminate against specific sectors of society. Discrimination in labor markets arises when workers with the same skill levels receive different pay or have different job opportunities due to their gender, race, or religion.
    Read this text to analyze discrimination in the labor market, how to measure it, and its relation to the housing market. Make sure you understand the controversy that surrounds public policies to reduce employment discrimination.
- Unit 4 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 4 Assessment
    
    Unit 4 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 5: Introduction to Consumer Choice
As you know, consumers are driven by their unique preferences when they seek to maximize their satisfaction (utility) while considering their limited budgets. Despite the subjectivity of preferences, choices are also influenced by income and prices. This Unit introduces the economic theories behind consumer decision-making. We build upon the budget constraint concept from Unit 1 and demonstrate how economic theory helps predict consumption responses to price and income changes.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  explain consumer preferences using concepts related to utility, including total utility and marginal utility;
  analyze a household’s budget line and describe how it changes when prices or incomes change;
  use indifference curves to explain the principle of diminishing marginal rate of substitution; and
  derive a demand curve from an indifference map by analyzing the quantity of the good consumed at different prices.
- 5.1: The Rational Consumer, Consumer Preferences, and Consumer Choice
  Are consumers rational? How do economists explain and measure consumer preferences and choices?
  In 1986, Adam Wagstaff argued that hospitals face the dilemma of not having enough resources to provide life-saving treatments to all patients. However, the technology was/is available to do so. Instead, society allocates resources to other priorities such as infrastructure, sports, education, and defense.
  Wagstaff explained that while individuals may value their health, they do not prioritize it above all else, as evidenced by behaviors like overeating, smoking, and drinking alcohol. The allocation of resources to non-health-related areas indicates that health is not the overriding value for society. (Wagstaff A. The Demand For Health: Some New Empirical Evidence. Journal of Health Economics, 1986)
  In this section, we explore the rationality of consumer choices by introducing the concepts of total and marginal utility and exploring consumer preferences. Terms like rationality, choices, and marginal utility may seem intimidating, but at the heart of it all, we are simply exploring the question: What do people desire in life?
  - Select activity Introduction to Consumer Choices
    
    Introduction to Consumer Choices Page
    
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    Read this introductory text to understand how we organize the main concepts included in this unit.
  - Select activity Diminishing Marginal Utility
    
    Diminishing Marginal Utility Page
    
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    Watch this video to explore the concepts of total utility and marginal utility. Make sure you understand that while total utility increases with consumption, marginal utility diminishes. The additional amount of happiness (marginal utility) consumers obtain from one more unit decreases with each additional unit.
  - Select activity Consumption Choices
    
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    Read this text on consumption choices. The budget line is built considering the constraint imposed by a limited budget and the utility and the marginal utility derived from the consumption of two goods. Remember, we introduced the concept and graph of the budget line in Unit 1.
  - Select activity Equalizing Marginal Utility per Dollar Spent
    
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    Watch this video on equalizing marginal utility per dollar spent for two products to review the rule on maximizing utility. Remember, this method determines what products people prefer to spend their income on, given a budget.
  - Select activity Budget Line
    
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    Watch this video on depicting the budget line in a graph. Remember that the budget line for a consumer shows different combinations for purchasing two goods, given a fixed budget.
  - Select activity How Changes in Income and Prices Affect Consumption Choices
    
    How Changes in Income and Prices Affect Consumption Choices Page
    
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    Read the first two sections of this text on how income, prices, and preferences influence consumer choices. Make sure you grasp that changes in product prices prompt consumers to adjust their consumption of related goods, not just the affected product.
  - Select activity Self-Check Questions
    
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    We have analyzed how prices, budget constraints, and consumer preferences interact to shape household decisions.
    Before we move on to the next section, try to solve the following to ensure you are prepared for the next section.
- 5.2: Indifference Curves
  Suppose a consumer has a limited monthly budget and wants to maximize their satisfaction (utility) by deciding how much to spend on video games and streaming video subscriptions. Indifference curves can help illustrate their preferences and choices based on what you have already studied in section 5.1.
  - Select activity Indifference Curves and Marginal Rate of Substitution
    
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    Watch this video on how to build and interpret indifference curves. Make sure you understand the math and microeconomics behind the slope of the indifference curve.
  - Select activity Types of Indifference Curves
    
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    Now, we can apply the indifference curve analysis to the types of goods and services identified in Unit 2, such as complements, substitutes, normal, and inferior goods. Review the section on the slope of the indifference curve in the previous video to better grasp the various shapes of indifference curves presented here.
  - Select activity Indifference Curve Analysis
    
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    Watch this video to review indifference curves and obtain consumer equilibrium. This equilibrium shows the optimal consumer choice and is mathematically determined by the tangency condition between the budget line and the indifference curve.
- 5.3: Building the Demand Curve from an Indifference Curve Map
  Consumer choice and equilibrium analysis may appear dense and abstract initially. You might wonder if such a framework is necessary for analyzing consumer choices. In reality, economists employ this framework to address various issues, including taxation on energy-dense foods, evaluating health-related quality of life, and assessing risk levels in financial decisions, among others.
  When we introduced the law of demand and the demand curve in Unit 2, we did not delve into the full details. Now, you are prepared to understand that the demand curve can be derived by adjusting the prices of the products considered in the indifference curve-budget line framework presented in the preceding section.
  - Select activity Deriving Demand Curve from Tweaking Marginal Utility per Dollar
    
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    Watch this video on how to draw the demand curve from working with the marginal utility per dollar.
  - Select activity Demand Curves and Income/Substitution Effects
    
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    If you are deeply involved in the analytical framework of consumer choice and do not mind mathematics and diagrams, it might be beneficial to watch this demonstration of the derivation of different demand curves from the consumer's equilibrium. While not required for this course, it may help you review the concepts and relationships introduced in this unit.
- Unit 5 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 5 Assessment
    
    Unit 5 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 6: The Producer
In this unit, we dive into the world of production. Our focus is on understanding the behavior of producers and the costs associated with their operations in the short and long run. In other words, we explore the relationship between the quantity of output a firm produces and the cost of producing that output. We also analyze the relationship between various cost functions and identify the production function's characteristics in different timeframes. This chapter lays the foundation for a deeper understanding of how businesses operate and make crucial production-related decisions.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  analyze the behavior of the producer;
  compare the costs of production in the short run to the costs of production in the long run;
  compute the relationship between different cost functions; and
  identify the production function in the short run as well as the long run.
- 6.1: Introduction to Production and the Firm
  Imagine a scenario where you could manufacture your iPod, iPhone, and Mac at home for the same price or even less than you can buy in a store. Would Apple still exist?
  Firms primarily exist because they organize the factors of production (labor, land, capital, and technology) to reduce the costs individual consumers would face if they tried to produce everything themselves. We can define a firm as an institution that organizes factors of production to produce output and maximize its profit (revenue minus cost).
  Once we understand that firms exist to reduce transaction costs (any costs associated with engaging in production or consumption activities) and their goal is to maximize profit, several questions arise:
  What should be produced?
  How should it be produced? (considering the amount of each input used)
  How much should be produced?
  Where should it be produced?
  We begin to answer these questions by considering the time frame. In microeconomics, the distinction between the short run and the long run is critical, especially on the production side.
  - Select activity Short Run vs. Long Run Production
    
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    Watch this video, which explains the difference between the short run and the long run. Consider how long it takes firms to change their factors of production.
  - Select activity Accounting Costs vs. Economic Costs
    
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    A firm's decision regarding the quantity of output to produce depends on the market structure where it operates (we learn about market structures in Unit 7) and the cost of production. The analysis of production costs takes us back to Unit 1 – we need to consider the direct costs and the opportunity costs of production, also known as implicit costs.
    Watch this video on the difference between accounting costs (direct costs) and economic costs (explicit and implicit costs). You might have to readjust your thinking about what cost means in economic analysis.
- 6.2: Production Decisions in the Short Run
  The long run is the time period when all costs are variable because the firm has time to change all the factors of production. In this section, we study how the firm makes profit-maximizing decisions in the long run. We start by analyzing the long-run production function to then explore the costs in the long run and the relationship between short and long-run costs.
  Think of the production function as the magical cookbook for firms' decisions. It is like having a high-tech cooking device to turn the factors of production into the optimum number of delicious chef-like dishes.
  - Select activity Production in the Short Run
    
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    Read this text to review the factors of production introduced in Unit 1 and to learn how to obtain and interpret the production function in the short run. Understanding the production function will pave the way for grasping concepts like total and marginal product (or output). The text also introduces the critical law of diminishing marginal returns.
  - Select activity Total Product, Marginal Product, and Average Product
    
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    The previous reading introduced several new concepts. Watch this video on total, average, and marginal products and the law of diminishing marginal returns to labor to ensure a solid understanding of these essential economic ideas and relationships.
  - Select activity Costs in the Short Run
    
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    As you know, a firm's costs depend on the quantities of factors of production the firm uses and the cost of those factors of production. We now focus on the analysis of costs in the short run. Why do you think costs differ in the short and the long run?
    Read this text, which explores short-run costs. Make sure you can define, calculate, and graph total cost, average total cost, average variable cost, and marginal cost.
  - Select activity Fixed and Variable Costs
    
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    Let's watch the following four videos to further clarify the new concepts introduced in the reading. We start by reviewing the concepts of fixed versus variable costs and then dive into a dynamic explanation of the cost curves. And because we understand that all those diagrams can make you dizzy, we have included a video on why it is crucial to grasp them all.
  - Select activity Self-Check Questions
    
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    Once you complete the videos, you should be well-prepared to answer the following review questions.
    You have just completed a challenging section packed with new concepts. With the relevant information in your hands, you should be able to answer the question posed at the beginning: how many units of pizza to prepare daily if you can only change the number of workers you hire?
- 6.3: Production Decisions in the Long Run
  The long run is the time period when all costs are variable because the firm has time to change all the factors of production. In this section, we study how the firm makes profit-maximizing decisions in the long run. We start by analyzing the long-run production function to then explore the costs in the long run and the relationship between short and long-run costs.
  - Select activity Production in the Short Run and the Long Run
    
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    Read this short section, which compares short-run and long-run production and introduces the long-run production function.
  - Select activity Costs in the Long Run
    
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    You should now be able to explain why the long-run production function represents the most efficient way to produce any level of output. If the answer readily comes to your mind, you are prepared to explore the analysis of costs in the long run.
    Read this text on how to calculate the long-run total cost. Compare the long-run average cost curve with the short-run average cost curve. Make sure you can differentiate economies of scale, diseconomies of scale, and constant returns to scale. You should also be able to compare economies of scale and diminishing marginal returns.
  - Select activity Long Run Average Total Cost Curve
    
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    Watch this video to review how we obtain and graph the long-run average total cost curve and its relation to the short-run average total cost curve.
  - Select activity Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
    
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    To finish this unit, watch this video to review the essential economic concept of economies of scale. By the end, you should be well-prepared to address the question posed: "Why are people and economic activity concentrated in cities rather than distributed evenly across a country?"
    We started this unit by asking these questions:
    What should be produced?
    How should it be produced? (considering the amount of each input used)
    How much should be produced?
    Where should it be produced?
    As previously mentioned, the answers to these questions depend on several factors, including the time frame considered, the costs of the firm, and the market structure within which the firm operates. In this unit, we have delved into the first two aspects. In the upcoming unit, we explore the various market structures where a firm can conduct its business.
- Unit 6 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 6 Assessment
    
    Unit 6 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 7: Market Structure: Competitive and Non-Competitive Markets
In this unit, we study how firms operate and compete within different market environments defined by the degree of competition. We introduce the concept of perfect competition, an ideal model that serves as a benchmark economists use to analyze real-world market structures. The model of perfect (or pure) competition results in an efficient allocation of resources. However, unregulated markets (which are central to perfect competition) often fail to create desired outcomes in the real world. Economists refer to these situations as examples of imperfect competition.
Keeping the perfect competition model as the analytical benchmark, we transition to its polar opposite, the monopoly model. Following that, we venture into the realm of imperfect competition, encompassing two distinct models: monopolistic competition and oligopoly. Within the context of oligopoly, we introduce some concepts of game theory, such as the prisoner's dilemma model and the Nash Equilibrium.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  explain the assumptions made about and the differences between perfectly competitive markets, non-competitive markets, and imperfectly competitive markets;
  discuss the characteristics of the model of perfect competition in the short run and the long run;
  describe the characteristics of the model of monopoly and how a monopolist maximizes profit;
  analyze how monopolistic competition affects the short-run equilibrium and the long-run equilibrium;
  describe the characteristics of an oligopoly and how it compares to other competitive and non-competitive models; and
  explain how the United States has used regulations to protect consumers and limit the effects of imperfect competition via antitrust policies.
- 7.1: Perfect Competition
  Perhaps you have had the opportunity to explore the vibrant street markets in Europe, where a multitude of vendors and stalls present an array of products. These markets feature everything from fresh produce to handmade crafts, and sellers can easily set up shop, engaging in fierce competition with similar offerings. Transactions occur directly between buyers and sellers, ensuring transparency, and prices are established through the interplay of supply and demand, with individual vendors having minimal influence on market prices due to the similarity of their products.
  - Select activity Market Structures
    
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    These types of markets are probably the best real-world analogy for our study in this section: perfectly competitive markets. Perfectly competitive markets are best understood within the context of the various market structures. Watch this video, which explains the market structure spectrum, including perfectly competitive markets.
  - Select activity Perfect Competition and Why It Matters
    
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    A market is only considered perfectly competitive if it fulfills four conditions:
    Many companies produce the same or identical products;
    Many buyers are available to buy the product, and many sellers are available to sell the product;
    Buyers and sellers have the relevant information they need to make rational decisions about the product they are buying and selling; and
    Companies can freely enter and leave the market without any restrictions.
    Why do we present a hypothetical market model when it is challenging to find real-life examples? Try to answer this question as you read this text on the characteristics of a perfectly competitive market.
  - Select activity Perfect Competition
    
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    Complement the text with the explanations in this video for a comprehensive understanding of the distinction between the supply and demand graph for a perfectly competitive market and a perfectly competitive firm. What is the relationship between the firm that is a price taker and the fact that its demand curve in a perfectly competitive market is a horizontal line? What is the price elasticity of demand of a fully horizontal demand curve?
  - Select activity How Perfectly Competitive Firms Make Output Decisions
    
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    In any market structure, firms must determine their optimal output level to maximize profits. This also applies in a perfectly competitive market, where products are homogeneous, allowing consumers to easily substitute one firm's product with an identical one from another company.
    Read this text on how perfectly competitive firms decide the amount of units they need to produce to maximize profits. Firms can find the profit-maximizing output level by comparing total revenue and total cost or marginal revenue and marginal cost. Make sure you understand the written explanations and the graphs. Why is total revenue an upward-sloping line while marginal revenue is a straight line?
  - Select activity Maximizing Profits
    
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    Once you have fully understood that a firm maximizes profit by producing the quantity of output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost, you are well-equipped to calculate the economic profit for that level of output by simply subtracting total cost from total revenue for that specific quantity. You can follow the explanation in the text above or in the following video. You may need to review the cost curves in Unit 6 (section 6.2.).
  - Select activity Understanding the Short-Run Shutdown
    
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    Students are usually taken aback by the concept that the output level that maximizes profit may result in losses (negative economic profit). How does this happen? Is it a sustainable scenario in the long run?
    Revisit "Shutdown Point at How Perfectly Competitive Firms Make Output Decisions" in the text you just read in this section, "How Perfectly Competitive Firms Make Output Decisions," and analyze it carefully. You can also review the shutdown point by watching this video on how a baker decides whether to keep their bakery open or closed in the short run.
  - Select activity Review Entry and Exit Decisions in the Long Run
    
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    We have now concluded our analysis of how a firm makes output decisions in the short run in a perfectly competitive market. But will the results change if the firm can modify all factors of production and all costs become variable, indicating a shift in the long run? Read this text on entry and exit decisions in the long run to find the answer and delve into the interaction between the firm's profit level and the market's supply and demand in the long run. Why do entry and exit lead to zero profits in the long run?
- 7.2: Non-competitive Markets: Monopoly
  As discussed, perfect competition, when extended to the long run, serves as a theoretical benchmark. In contrast, market structures like monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly, which are more commonly encountered in the real world than perfect competition, do not consistently operate at the minimum average cost, nor do they always equate price with marginal cost. In this section, we explore the concept of monopoly, which stands as the polar opposite of perfect competition within the spectrum of market structures.
  Monopoly, a market structure at the far end of the competitive spectrum, presents a stark contrast to the perfect competition model we discussed in the previous section.
  - Select activity Introduction to a Monopoly
    
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    We can define a monopoly as a firm that produces a good or service for which no close substitute exists. In fact, a monopoly is a market where a single firm is shielded from competition by barriers that prevent the entry of new firms. Read this introductory text to analyze monopolies. Can a monopoly charge any price it wishes?
  - Select activity How Monopolies Form: Barriers to Entry
    
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    In line with the long-term dynamics we discussed in the previous unit, you may expect that when a monopoly generates a positive profit, it would naturally draw other firms into its market. However, that is not the case. Monopolies are safeguarded by barriers to entry, effectively blocking other companies from entering this attractive market. Read this text on how monopolies form. Make sure you understand how economies of scale can give rise to a natural monopoly.
  - Select activity Monopoly
    
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    Watch this video on how a monopoly chooses the amount of output that maximizes profit and how to identify the profit obtained when such an amount is produced. The analysis extends to the long run. Make sure you understand the shape of all the curves we use to graph a monopoly and the relations between those curves.
  - Select activity How a Profit-Maximizing Monopoly Chooses Output and Price
    
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    Read this section to make sure you understand the distinctions between demand curves for perfectly competitive firms and monopolies. This text will also help you review the calculation of a monopoly's profit, which should be familiar since the process is similar to what you have already studied for perfect competition.
    Since a monopoly leads to a reduction in market efficiency (resulting in higher prices and lower output compared to perfect competition), governments are sometimes compelled to intervene and limit their economic power. In the last section of this unit, we will analyze these government policies.
- 7.3: Imperfect Competition: Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly
  Companies like McDonald's, Burger King, and Wendy's offer similar products but differentiate themselves through branding, menu items, and marketing strategies. Similarly, consumers encounter numerous choices for clothing and fashion items that share relative similarities in the apparel industry, such as brands like Gap, H&M, and Zara, among many others. How do we classify these markets?
  On the other hand, the pharmaceutical industry is often characterized by the dominance of a few major players, including Pfizer, Merck, and Johnson & Johnson. These companies wield substantial market influence and affect drug prices. In what type of market does the U.S. pharmaceutical industry operate? Clearly, it is not perfectly competitive. But is it a monopoly?
  - Select activity Introduction to Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly
    
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    Read this introductory text, which defines two forms of imperfect competition: monopolistic competition and oligopoly. How do differentiated products promote monopolistic competition? What are the benefits of variety and product differentiation? Do governments need to protect consumers from monopolistic competition?
  - Select activity Monopolistic Competition
    
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    We begin our analysis of imperfect competition with monopolistic competition. Monopolistic competition, as described, is a unique market structure where multiple firms compete among themselves while offering products that possess some degree of distinctiveness. It is probably the single most common market structure in the U.S. economy.
    We begin our analysis of imperfect competition with monopolistic competition. Monopolistic competition, as described, is a unique market structure where multiple firms compete among themselves while offering products that possess some degree of distinctiveness. It is probably the single most common market structure in the U.S. economy.
  - Select activity More on Monopolistic Competition
    
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    Watch this video on monopolistic competition to strengthen your grasp of this market structure after reading the previous section. Pay attention to the note that you have what it takes to analyze a monopolistically competitive market since you have already looked at perfect competition and monopoly. If this does not sound right to you, you may need to revisit the section on perfect competition.
  - Select activity Oligopoly
    
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    Now that you have a comprehensive understanding of monopolistic competition, let's shift our focus to oligopoly, where a small number of dominant firms shape the market landscape. Oligopoly is considered the most complex market structure. Can you guess why?
    American Airlines introduced its AAdvantage frequent flyer program in 1981. Within days, United Airlines launched its Mileage Plus program, and that same year, Delta Airlines and TWA offered similar programs. This is a clear example of the complexities that can arise in a market with just a few firms that compete fiercely against each other. It illustrates one of the key characteristics of an oligopolistic market: the interdependence among the firms.
    Read this text on why oligopolistic firms exist and whether they should cooperate to function as a monopoly. Given the complexities introduced by oligopolistic interaction, there is no single model that can explain the oligopoly. Pay attention to the explanation of game theory as a tool to analyze the dynamics of oligopolistic behavior.
  - Select activity The Prisoner's Dilemma and the Nash Equilibrium
    
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    Watch the video on the Prisoners' Dilemma and Nash Equilibrium to improve your understanding of these two game theory tools.
  - Select activity Oligopolies and Monopolistic Competition
    
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    Now that you have studied monopolistic competition and oligopoly as imperfectly competitive market structures, watch this video that compares the two so you can assess your understanding of the materials.
- 7.4: Monopolies and Antitrust Policies
  In this section, we explore antitrust policies and other regulations U.S. policymakers have enacted to protect consumers from the loss of efficiency created by imperfectly competitive markets, particularly monopolistic and oligopolistic market structures. Policymakers must figure out the extent of their involvement to strike a balance between harnessing the potential advantages of widespread production and mitigating the risk of reduced competition when companies aim to exploit economies of scale.
  - Select activity Firms and Markets for Goods and Services
    
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    Read this short text introducing this section on competition policy (antitrust measures). Make sure you understand why the author states that imperfect competition can generate a loss of potential consumer surplus, a concept that we introduced in Unit 4.
  - Select activity Corporate Mergers
    
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    Policymakers need tools to measure the level of competition in an industry or market and enhance allocative efficiency while safeguarding consumer welfare from potential losses in consumer surplus due to firms' market power. Read this text on how to calculate concentration ratios and the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. Why does the text start describing corporate mergers? What is the relationship between mergers (or mergers and acquisitions) and the degree of competition in an industry?
  - Select activity Regulating Anticompetitive Behavior
    
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    Antitrust legislation is complex and must evolve with changing market dynamics. Read this text to learn how certain firm strategies, which may have saved you money, can be anti-competitive. Examples of these potentially restrictive practices include exclusive dealing, tying sales, bundling, and predatory pricing.
  - Select activity Regulating Natural Monopolies
    
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    A natural monopoly creates yet another challenge for competition policy because it makes a single firm more cost-effective than multiple firms. Read this text, which explores how to create an appropriate competition policy for a natural monopoly. Make sure you fully understand the graph depicted in Figure 11.3. If you find it challenging to follow the explanation, revisit Section 7.2 to review the theory and accompanying graphs that explain the economic behavior of a monopoly.
  - Select activity Regulation
    
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    We wrap up this section and chapter with a video that explains how policymakers deal with monopoly power in a particular market. Make sure you can understand the graphs.
    Note that there is no consensus on whether government regulation and taxation are necessary to rectify inefficient market outcomes. Some economists argue that such intervention is essential, as market failures often result from private decision-making. They propose taxing negative externalities to internalize costs and subsidizing positive externalities for the common good. Conversely, some argue that market mechanisms can naturally resolve these externalities (Coase theorem). They believe that mutually beneficial contracts between parties, such as agreements between landlords and polluters, can lead to efficient outcomes, thus questioning the need for extensive government involvement.
- Unit 7 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 7 Assessment
    
    Unit 7 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Unit 8: The Role of the Government in a Market Economy
In this unit, we delve into how government intervention can address market failures, such as the existence of public goods, externalities, and income and wealth inequality. We analyze decision-making in the public sector, comparing public interest theory with public choice theory. Finally, we explore the Coase Theorem to determine whether private bargaining is preferable to government intervention when dealing with external effects.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.
- Select activity Upon successful completion of this unit, you will ...
  Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
  
  explain how government intervention can solve market failures of public goods;
  
  explain how governments redistribute income through transfer payments;
  
  differentiate between regressive, proportional, and progressive taxes;
  
  explain public choice theory and public interest theory; and
  
  explain the Coase theorem and the conditions needed for private bargaining to achieve efficiency.
- 8.1: Public Goods
  We introduced public goods in Unit 4 when we talked about market failures. Public goods have two fundamental characteristics: non-excludability and non-rivalry. Non-excludability means it is difficult, or even impossible, to prevent individuals from using the good. In simpler terms, if a public good is available, everyone can enjoy its advantages, and it is challenging to prevent anyone from accessing it. Non-rivalry implies the consumption of the good by one person does not reduce its availability or usability for others.
  What is the public good? Read this text on public choice theory and how rational voters conduct cost-benefit analyses of public issues. The theory of rational ignorance says that people will not vote if the costs of becoming informed and voting are too high or if they do not feel their vote will make a difference. However, a smaller group of voters may not elect candidates that enact policies to benefit the entire population.
  - Select activity Public Goods
    
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    Read this text to review the definition of a public good. Compare this definition with the free rider problem and identify sources of public goods. You can use the Prisoner's Dilemma introduced in Unit 7 to analyze the free rider problem. Why do we consider the public sanitation system a public good? Should the government pay for public goods? Why can governments provide public goods more successfully when they have strong institutions?
  - Select activity Rival and Excludable Goods
    
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    Watch this video to review the concepts of rival and excludable goods to better understand the characteristics of a public good. What is the "Tragedy of the Commons"?
  - Select activity Public Goods and Bads, Open Access, and Shared Resources
    
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    Analyzing goods and services in terms of their rivalry and excludability helps us determine their optimum allocation. Read this short text on a 2 × 2 matrix to classify goods according to this criteria.
- 8.2: Government Revenue and Expenditures
  According to De Mooij and Keen, it is difficult to come up with anything that has not been taxed at some point in history. Items like playing cards, urine, fireplaces, slaves, religious minorities, and windows all found themselves under the scrutiny of tax collectors. (Ruud De Mooij and Michael Keen. Taxing Principles Making the Best of a Necessary Evil. Finance and Development, 2014).
  In this section, we examine both sides of the government budget – revenue and spending – as tools to solve market failures.
  - Select activity Public Finance and Public Choice: The Role of Government in a Market Economy
    
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    Read this text that explains government revenues and government expenditures. The text places the data on government revenues and expenditures in a historical context. You can find more recent official data on these variables from sources like the International Monetary Fund. Why are transfer payments a tool to redistribute income? Are you willing to pay higher State taxes to improve income distribution in the state where you live?
  - Select activity Introduction to Taxes, Taxes, and Tax Forms, Financial Literacy
    
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    Government agencies need a source of revenue to provide public goods (government expenditures), subsidize innovation, and/or transfer Social Security checks. In most countries, taxation is the primary source of government revenue or funding. Although you have been paying taxes since your first store visit, the jargon surrounding taxes might be confusing. Watch this introductory video to grasp the main concepts.
  - Select activity Public Finance and Public Choice: Financing Government
    
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    Read this text to study the main principles of taxation and understand the differences between regressive, proportional, and progressive taxes within the context of the different types of taxes. Is the U.S. income tax progressive? What benefits do you receive from the taxes you pay?
    Drawing upon what you have learned in this section and in the last section of Unit 3, explain the challenges in creating a tax system that is simultaneously fair and efficient.
- 8.3: Choices in the Public Sector
  How are choices made in the public sector? This section briefly examines two competing perspectives on public sector choice. The first is driven by examining market failure. Choices in the public sector involve locating problems of market failure, determining efficient solutions, and finding ways to make the solutions work. This approach – the public interest theory of government – assumes that the goal of public policy is to allocate resources efficiently.
  A more cynical person might disagree. An alternative approach considers public sector choices in the same way as we do in the private sector. Public choice theory assumes individuals only make choices to maximize their own utility – whether they are voters, politicians, or bureaucrats, these individuals seek solutions that align with their self-interest. Business owners may try to influence public sector choices to increase their profits. The effort to influence public policy choices to advance your own self-interest is called rent-seeking behavior.
  - Select activity Public Interest Theory and Public Choice Theory
    
    Public Interest Theory and Public Choice Theory Page
    
    Students must
    
    Mark as done
    
    Public Interest Theory says that government officials should make decisions that are best for everyone. They use tools like cost-benefit analysis to find the most efficient solutions for public goods like parks or schools. Sometimes, markets do not show the real value of these goods, so it is up to the government to figure that out.
    On the flip side, Public Choice Theory argues that people in the government are also looking out for themselves. This theory explains why many people do not vote. Voting takes time and effort, and many feel their single vote won't make a difference. This is called rational abstention. Because not everyone votes, the outcome may not truly represent what the community wants.
- 8.4: Private Bargaining vs. Government Intervention
  In October 2023, the first chapter of the latest open textbook on microeconomics is "Prosperity, Inequality, and Planetary Limits." Its introduction features a striking image of a massive bushfire raging out of control. These bushfires have become a common sight for many of us. This raises the question of whether inequality and environmental issues are private or public matters.
  In this section, we introduce the Coase theorem, which posits that private bargaining can address market failures. In some cases, these actions are more effective than government policies.
  - Select activity Market Failures and Government Policy
    
    Market Failures and Government Policy Page
    
    Students must
    
    Mark as done
    
    Ronald Coase suggested that private negotiations might be more advantageous than government interference when addressing external impacts. He contended that the individuals engaged in the exchange typically possess more information required to achieve an efficient resolution than governmental entities.
    Read this text, which explains the Coase theorem, why private bargaining might not work, and the principle of "the polluter pays." Note that Ronald Coase recognized the limitations of private bargaining due to unclear property rights and high transaction costs.
  - Select activity The Coase Theorem
    
    The Coase Theorem Page
    
    Students must
    
    Mark as done
    
    Watch this video on the Coase theorem and how, under specific conditions, the market can effectively manage externalities. Do you think the market system can address the climate emergency?
- Unit 8 Assessment
  - Select activity Unit 8 Assessment
    
    Unit 8 Assessment Quiz
    
    Students must
    
    Receive a grade
    
    Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.
    
    This assessment does not count towards your grade. It is just for practice!
    
    You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
    
    You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.
Study Guide
This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walks through the learning outcomes, and lists important vocabulary. It is not meant to replace the course materials!
- Select activity ECON101 Study Guide
  
  ECON101 Study Guide Book
Course Feedback Survey
Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses.

If you come across any urgent problems, email contact@saylor.org.
- Select activity Course Feedback Survey
  
  Course Feedback Survey URL
Certificate Final Exam
Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate.
- Select activity ECON101: Certificate Final Exam
  
  ECON101: Certificate Final Exam Quiz
  
  Students must
  
  Receive a grade
  
  Receive a passing grade
Saylor Direct Credit
Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course. This course is eligible for college credit through Saylor Academy's Saylor Direct Credit Program.

The Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam requires a proctoring fee of $5. To pass this course and earn a Proctor-Verified Course Certificate and official transcript, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on the Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times, with a 14-day waiting period between each attempt.

We are partnering with SmarterProctoring to help make the proctoring fee more affordable. We will be recording you, your screen, and the audio in your room during the exam. This is an automated proctoring service, but no decisions are automated; recordings are only viewed by our staff with the purpose of making sure it is you taking the exam and verifying any questions about exam integrity. We understand that there are challenges with learning at home - we won't invalidate your exam just because your child ran into the room!

Requirements:

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Chrome (v74+)

Webcam + Microphone

1mbps+ Internet Connection

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a Credit-Recommended Course Completion Certificate and can request an official transcript.

Saylor Direct Credit Exam

This exam is part of the Saylor Direct College Credit program. Before attempting this exam, review the Saylor Direct Credit page for complete requirements.

Essential exam information:

You must take this exam with our automated proctor. If you cannot, please contact us to request an override.

The automated proctoring session will cost $5.

This is a closed-book, closed-notes exam (see allowed resources below).

You will have two (2) hours to complete this exam.

You have up to 3 attempts, but you must wait 14 days between consecutive attempts of this exam.

The passing grade is 70% or higher.

This exam consists of 50 multiple-choice questions.

Some details about taking your exam:

Exam questions are distributed across multiple pages.

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You can go directly to any question by clicking its number in the navigation panel.

You can flag a question to remind yourself to return to it later.

You will receive your grade as soon as you submit your answers.

Allowed resources:

Gather these resources before you start your exam.

Blank paper

What should I do before my exam?

Gather these before you start your exam:

A photo I.D. to show before your exam.

A credit card to pay the automated proctoring fee.

(optional) Blank paper and pencil.

(optional) A glass of water.

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Disconnect any extra monitors attached to your computer.

You will have up to two (2) hours to complete your exam. Try to make sure you won't be interrupted during that time!

You will require at least 1mbps of internet bandwidth. Ask others sharing your connection not to stream during your exam.

Take a deep breath; you got this!

Course Introduction

Course Syllabus

Unit 1: Introduction to Economics

1.1: Economics Unveiled: A Beginner's Journey

Scarce Resources

Introduction to Microeconomics

Specialization

Why the Division of Labor Increases Production

Microeconomics versus Macroeconomics

1.2: Scarcity, Choices, Incentives, and Opportunity Costs

Scarcity and Choice

Opportunity Cost and Trade-offs

How Individuals Make Choices Based on Their Budget Constraints

1.3: Economic Decision-Making: Budget Constraint and Thinking in Marginal Terms

Budget Contraints

Budget Line

Marginal Thinking and the Sunk Cost Fallacy

1.4: The Economic Toolbox: Interpreting Diagrams and Equations

Mathematics in Economics

Graph Review

1.5: Economic Models

Models and Theories

Ceteris Paribus

The Production Possibilities Frontier and Social Choices

More on the Production Possibilities Frontier

Absolute and Comparative Advantage

Increasing Opportunity Cost

Allocative Efficiency and Marginal Benefit

Circular Flow Model of Income and Expenditures

Economics, the Economy, and the Biosphere

Unit 1 Assessment

Unit 1 Assessment

Unit 2: Supply and Demand

2.1: Introduction to Demand and Supply

Introduction to Demand and Supply

2.2: Demand for Goods and Services

Demand for Goods and Services

Law of Demand

Change in Demand vs. Change in Quantity Demanded

Changes in Income, Population, or Preferences

Shifts in Demand and Supply for Goods and Services

Normal and Inferior Goods

Price of Related Products and Demand

Change in Expected Future Prices and Demand

Summing Up Factors That Change Demand

2.3: Supply of Goods and Services

Supply of Goods and Services

Law of Supply

Supply

Summing Up Factors That Change Supply

2.4: Market Equilibrium and Demand and Supply Changes

Market Equilibrium

Changes in Equilibrium Price and Quantity: The Four-Step Process

Changes in Market Equilibrium

Self-Check Questions

2.5: Application of Market Equilibrium to the Analysis of the Labor Market and the Financial Markets

Demand and Supply at Work in Labor Markets

Labor Market Equilibrium

The Moral Economy of the Great Resignation

Introduction to Financial Markets

Introduction to Interest

How Businesses Raise Financial Capital

How Households Supply Financial Capital

Unit 2 Assessment

Unit 2 Assessment

Unit 3: Elasticity and its Applications

3.1: The Concept of Elasticity

Introduction to Elasticity

3.2: Elasticities of Demand

Price Elasticity of Demand

Elasticity of Demand

Income Elasticity of Demand

Cross Elasticity of Demand

Polar Cases of Elasticity and Constant Elasticity

3.3: Elasticity of Supply and Its Applications

Elasticity of Supply

Price Elasticity of Supply Determinants

Is the Elasticity the Slope?

3.4: Elasticity, Revenues, and Pricing Decisions

Elasticity and Pricing