HIST362: Modern Revolutions

The protesters use different methods – from relatively peaceful civil disobedience in India to extreme violence in France, Russia, China, and Cambodia to subversive terrorist tactics against colonialism in the United States, Latin America, Vietnam, and the modern Middle East. Although the jury is still out, several revolutions created stable representative governments, such as India, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Did China and Russia create stable governments, or did the autocratic leaders simply stifle discontent? As Zhou Enlai said, history will decide. Many countries elected or appointed a series of failed leaders who prompted counter-revolutionaries to rise in civil war and subsequent revolution. This occurred in France, Haiti, Latin America, and the Middle East. Many of the revolutions we study in this course were direct responses to colonialism and European imperialism, such as in the United States, Haiti, Latin America, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, India, and the Middle East. Revolutions come in many forms: political, social, agricultural, and scientific. We begin by examining the nature of political revolution and how pre-revolutionary Europe and the Enlightenment have shaped modern revolutions. We will also explore European colonialism and imperialism since the oppression the foreign powers caused prompted revolutionaries to rebel in search of independence. By the end of this course, you will be able to discuss the nature of political revolution, identify commonalities and differences among these events, and understand how they individually and collectively transformed the modern world.

First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

How do we define political revolution? While debated, most historians define revolution as a transformation of a political system that is often accompanied by violence. However, the fundamental factors that cause revolutions are still debated. In this unit, we examine the nature of revolution, the Enlightenment in Europe, and how this led to the English Civil War of the 17th century and the English Revolution of 1688.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 9 hours.

By the mid-eighteenth century, Britain had colonies and trading posts across the globe. During this period of colonialism and European imperialism, European countries carved up the world – taking large portions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. While some European powers used these newly acquired territories to establish homes for their people, most viewed their colonies as an opportunity to harvest natural and human capital to enrich the "mother country". The colonies and the people who lived there were not equal partners. By the 18th century, England had colonies in India and the Americas. While the American colonies produced certain cash crops such as tobacco, the British monarchy and government largely ignored them because they were not as rich in resources as their other colonies. While some colonies had royal governors, most were allowed to govern and were not taxed. The American colonies were left alone, in relative salutary neglect. This changed in 1763 when the American colonies got caught up in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), one of the many conflicts between France and England, the two major superpowers of the colonial era. England emerged victorious from this conflict, which the American colonists called the French and Indian War. It effectively pushed France out of North America. Despite gaining much territory, the war was costly to the British Empire. The British government famously imposed new taxes on its American colonies to recoup its losses. In addition to this sudden change in British governance, the Proclamation Line of 1763 blocked the American colonists from accessing the territory gained from war. The British had agreed to cede this land to the Native Americans, who had been their allies during the Seven Years' War. With the Enlightenment philosophies we discussed in Unit 1 as their guide, the American colonists believed they were British citizens with the same rights as those living in England. Their demands for greater local control of trade and taxes evolved from resistance to demands for independence into the democratic institutions governing their new nation. After the American Revolution (1775–1783) brought complete separation from Britain, the colonists struggled to agree on the most equitable form of government for their newly independent state. The revolutionary leaders debated the nature of freedom and government, the best way to structure the state, the proper relationship between religion and politics, and other important topics. Their views reflected fundamental beliefs and assumptions about human nature found in the Enlightenment. In this section, we explore the American revolutionary experience, the creation of the United States, and the ideas and ideals that helped shape this time of rapid political and social transformation throughout the Americas.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 9 hours.

Many argue that the French Revolution was the most important modern revolution. The revolutionary leaders abolished the monarchy and altered most of France's social and political institutions to make them more rational and modern. They proclaimed a republic, instituted parliamentary elections, introduced educational reforms, created a new revolutionary calendar, and reorganized France's electoral districts to make representation more democratic. Unlike the American Revolution, which resulted in a government that has lasted until today, the French revolutionaries rejected their initial ideals when the new government began to use violence and terror to maintain its hold on power. By 1799, the revolution succumbed to a dictatorship at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). As the self-proclaimed emperor, Napoleon expanded his empire, plunging Europe into 15 years of conflict, shifting alliances, and French domination. The Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) reshaped European political boundaries and indirectly resulted in revolutions worldwide. The French Revolution (1789–1799) abolished the monarchy and transformed France's political system into a republic, a government where elected officials held power. While elections and many public policy reforms were implemented, the revolution was extremely drastic and violent. It also resulted in the ascension of Napoleon and the reorganization of Europe. In this unit, we explore the roots and impact of the French Revolution, the ascension and importance of Napoleon, the partitioning of Poland and Lithuania, and the Congress of Vienna of 1815 that reorganized Europe. As you study, think about how it may have been inspired by the American Revolution and how it helped shape the modern world.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 11 hours.

Many argue that the French Revolution was the most important modern revolution. The revolutionary leaders abolished the monarchy and altered most of France's social and political institutions to make them more rational and modern. They proclaimed a republic, instituted parliamentary elections, introduced educational reforms, created a new revolutionary calendar, and reorganized France's electoral districts to make representation more democratic. Unlike the American Revolution, which resulted in a government that has lasted until today, the French revolutionaries rejected their initial ideals when the new government began to use violence and terror to maintain its hold on power. By 1799, the revolution succumbed to a dictatorship at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). As the self-proclaimed emperor, Napoleon expanded his empire, plunging Europe into 15 years of conflict, shifting alliances, and French domination. The Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) reshaped European political boundaries and indirectly resulted in revolutions worldwide. The French Revolution (1789–1799) abolished the monarchy and transformed France's political system into a republic, a government where elected officials held power. While elections and many public policy reforms were implemented, the revolution was extremely drastic and violent. It also resulted in the ascension of Napoleon and the reorganization of Europe. In this unit, we explore the roots and impact of the French Revolution, the ascension and importance of Napoleon, the partitioning of Poland and Lithuania, and the Congress of Vienna of 1815 that reorganized Europe. As you study, think about how it may have been inspired by the American Revolution and how it helped shape the modern world.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 10 hours.

This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walks through the learning outcomes, and lists important vocabulary. It is not meant to replace the course materials!

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