Agricultural Crisis Communication Using Social Media

Introduction/Review of Literature

"No organization is immune to crises", including agricultural organizations. Agricultural crises can have an impact on the public's perceptions of the industry, and with social media being a major source of information for most Americans, the use of social media surrounding agriculturally-related crises is an important topic to investigate in the field of agricultural communications.

Crisis communication can help fight a crisis, minimize damages, and protect the organization, stakeholders, and industry from harm. Organizations that do not have a crisis communications plan often do nothing in response to a crisis. However, Coombs states that a crisis communications plan should be flexible and manageable, so than an organization can actually do something in the event of a crisis. Crises create the need for information, and effective crisis communication can provide that information to key stakeholders. "Technical advances are transforming how crisis management professionals and researchers view, interact with, and disseminate information to affected communities in a crisis situation". Research on social media technologies as an aspect of crisis management is still emerging. Much of the research conducted on this subject thus far has focused on the use of blogs or websites and found audiences seek immediate and in-depth crisis information from online sources. However, Akhgar, Staniforth, and Waddington found that social media can play a crucial role in a crisis, providing a platform to connect and collaborate, especially if the communicators are overwhelmed. As early as 2009, when social media was in its infancy, agricultural communications practitioners had realized the importance of incorporating social media into a crisis communications plan. Further, social media can be used by organizations to identify warning signs that a crisis is developing, allowing them to inform the public and share news on a crisis before the media takes control.

A Pew Research Internet Project study found that 74% of online adults are using some form of social media, which could be Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram, or other sites. Specific to agribusiness, most are regularly using the aforementioned social media sites, often through the platform's mobile app. Social media has become "a cultural phenomenon that has changed how all organizations manage crises online", and "the time is fast approaching when 'social' media will simply become 'media'".

According to Coombs (2008), social media has the potential to become a pivotal aspect of crisis communications, not only in identifying when and how a crisis is developing, but also in sending messages during a crisis. For example, Blue Bell Creameries heavily used Facebook to communicate with its customers through a Listeria outbreak, product recall, plant closure, reopening, and finally re-stocking of its products in stores. Through the crisis, Blue Bell was able to answer questions from consumers and send messages of appreciation. These messages were one way, or sent by organization to distribute information about the crisis, and two way, in response to comments and questions from the public. The interactive nature of social media allows the public to become part of the actual crisis response and provides an avenue through which news can be shared with millions instantaneously and without the presence of journalists.

Irlbeck et al.  found agricultural public relations practitioners believed it was necessary for their organizations to act immediately if a crisis struck, regardless of the presence or absence of a communications plan. Social media's ability to deliver instantaneous messages to a vast audience makes its use in crisis communications invaluable to organizations undergoing a crisis, foregoing the need for mass media. Palmer, Irlbeck, Meyers, and Chambers encouraged public relations practitioners in agriculture to use social media in the event of a crisis to provide consumers with their messages as quickly as possible.

Social media is now a crucial part of communications during natural disasters. Alexander found that social media can be used in emergency situations to listen to the public, monitor emerging situations, respond to calls for assistance, crowd source response teams, dispel rumors, and promote charitable donations. During the 2011 earthquake in Japan, emergency managers found they could spread information via Twitter up to 20 minutes faster than through mainstream media. Social media would frequently work in the hours following the earthquake, even though telephones and other communications services would not. Finally, social media was a key tool following the earthquake for survivors to let friends and family know they were safe.

Social media has the potential to both directly and indirectly impact audiences during a crisis situation, especially as journalists increasingly turn to social media for news generation. The emergence of social media as a major source for news and information gathering in recent years provides communicators with an opportunity to improve their communication with stakeholders surrounding a crisis. As one communication professional explained regarding the 2009 Salmonella outbreak in peanuts, "I look back and it wasn't that long ago, but you think about the difference of social media now and social media then, and its huge. The difference now is social media".

Conceptual Framework

Models or theories focused on social media use during a crisis, particularly an agricultural crisis, are limited. "The practice of crisis communications is ahead of research in terms of social media…There is a need to elaborate and build greater knowledge about crisis communications and new media with an emphasis on social media". By understanding how agricultural communicators use social media in crisis communication efforts, agricultural communications researchers can help improve communication with target audiences when the next crisis occurs.

Several models for crisis communications do exist, even though social media is not the specific focus. Aside from assessing risk areas, Coombs (2019) provides well-cited guidelines for developing a crisis communication plan. His plan guidelines include a rehearsal, incident commander designation, contact sheet (including the crisis management team, stakeholders, media, and others), risk assessment, incident report sheets, proprietary information, communication strategies, business continuity plan, and a post-crisis evaluation plan. Identifying and training spokespeople is another key planning element. Horsley and Barker proposed a Synthesis Model that includes ongoing public relations efforts, identifying and preparation for crise, training and rehearsal, the potential crisis, and evaluation of the communications efforts. The Irlbeck et al. study is closely related to Horsley and Barker's model; however, it contains more detail and was developed specifically for agricultural communications practitioners (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Pre-crisis, Crisis, and Post-Crisis Model for Agricultural Communications.

The model in Figure 1, however, does not include much on social media in a crisis. Palenchar and Freberg recommended including social media in a crisis plan; however, individuals posting messages must be well-trained understand the technology, and policies and expected behaviors need to be established in advance. Stephens and Malone researched social media's use in crises and found it should be included in a plan, just like any traditional communications strategy.

Background

Three agricultural crises were chosen to be investigated in this study. The reasons for selection are as follows: 1) social media was used to communicate with the target audience; 2) the scope of the crises was similar in that they received some national attention, but had more of a regional impact; 3) the locations of the crises were in the Great Plains region of the United States; 4) the crises occurred within a three year window; and 5) the crises were selected based on their varying crisis typologies.

The first crisis occurred in 2011 when a Listeria outbreak was discovered in cantaloupes originating from a Colorado-based farm, resulting in a nationwide Food and Drug Administration recall. In total, 147 people were infected across 28 states resulting in 33 deaths and one miscarriage (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). Cantaloupe farmers from Colorado responded to national media coverage, sales of all cantaloupes were affected following the outbreak, and the CDC recommended not eating cantaloupe if its source could not be determined. The farm where the crisis originated, as well as many others, used their social media outlets and website in a variety of ways to communicate about the crisis. Additionally, farmers and Colorado state officials formed an association for cantaloupe growers and hired a public relations firm to help handle the situation and rebuild the local industry. Based on crisis typologies from Coombs, Ulmer et al., and Seeger et al., this crisis was categorized as a traditional, unintentional, product crisis. This crisis was chosen because it was national and food based.

The second crisis in this study occurred in 2012 when a Texas-based agricultural museum experienced backlash after its plan to add two mules, preserved by taxidermy, to an exhibit displaying a 19^th century reaper. The museum was attacked on social media by animal rights activists. The addition of the mules was suggested by an exhibit design firm contracted by the museum to enhance a featured exhibit. The museum's board of directors conducted a search for animals that would fit their need and learned of a pair of elderly mules that were due to be sent to a slaughter plant in Mexico. The mules were purchased by the museum with plans of humane euthanasia by a veterinarian, then preserved by an expert taxidermist. Local animal rights activists learned of the museum's plan and began posting harassing messages to its Facebook page. The story was picked up by local, state, and national news outlets resulting in negative feedback from the public. The museum's Facebook page received an overwhelming amount of traffic and comments during the crisis, to the point that the museum's director shut the page down. The crisis is categorized as either an unintentional or intentional, social media, public perception crisis. Researchers chose this crisis because it was regional, involved animal rights organizations, and had a large social media presence.

The third crisis occurred in October 2013 when an unusually early, severe winter blizzard hit South Dakota, killing thousands of cattle in the region. Following a period of overly warm temperatures, cattle in the area had not yet grown their winter coats and were grazing in unprotected summer pastures. With warning coming only 24 hours before the storm struck, ranchers were unable to move hundreds of cattle to winter pastures and shelter. It was estimated that 15-20% of the region's 3.85 million head of cattle were killed, with some ranchers losing more than half of their herds and suffering tens of thousands of dollars in losses. Several social media outlets, including many blogs, were used to spread word nationwide about the devastating situation, particularly to those within the agricultural industry. Fundraising efforts were also undertaken via blogs and social media to aid ranchers affected and to raise awareness of the crisis. According to Coombs, Ulmer et al., and Seeger et al., this crisis is categorized as an unintentional, traditional, natural disaster. This crisis was chosen because it was an act of nature and involved livestock.