PRDV217: Introduction to Sales

Your reasoning may also proceed causally. Causal reasoning examines related events to determine which one caused the other. You may begin with a cause and attempt to determine its effect. For example, when the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, scientists explained that because many animals in the Gulf were nesting and reproducing, the spill could wipe out "an entire generation of hundreds of species."

Their argument reasoned that the spill (cause) would result in species loss (effect). Two years later, the causal reasoning might be reversed. If we were seeing species loss in the Gulf (effect), we could reason that it was a result of the oil spill (cause). Both of these claims rely on the evidence available at the time. To make the first claim, scientists not only offered evidence that animals were nesting and reproducing, but they also looked at the effects of an oil spill that occurred 21 years earlier in Alaska. To make the second claim, scientists could examine dead animals washing up on the coast to determine whether their deaths were caused by oil.

Pathos

While we have focused heavily on logical reasoning, we must also recognize the strong role that emotions play in the persuasive process. Aristotle called this element of speech pathos. Pathos draws on the emotions, sympathies, and prejudices of the audience to appeal to their non-rational side. Human beings are constantly in some emotional state, which means that tapping into an audience's emotions can be vital to persuade them to accept your proposition.

One of the most helpful strategies in appealing to your audience's emotions is to use clear examples that illustrate your point. Illustrations can be crafted verbally, nonverbally, or visually. To offer a verbal illustration, you could tell a compelling story. For example, when fundraising for breast cancer research, Nancy Brinker, creator of Susan G. Komen for the Cure, has plenty of compelling statistics and examples. Yet, she regularly talks about her sister, explaining:

Brinker promised her sister that she would continue her fight against breast cancer. This story compels donors to join her fight.

Speakers can also tap into emotions using nonverbal behaviors to model the desired emotion for their audience. In the summer of 2012, the U.S. House of Representatives debated holding the Attorney General in contempt for refusing to release documents concerning a controversial gun-tracking operation. Arguing for a contempt vote, South Carolina Representative Trey Gowdy did not simply state his claim; instead, he raised his voice, slowed his pace, and used hand motions to convey anger with what he perceived as deception on the part of the Attorney General. His use of volume, tone, pace, and hand gestures enhanced the message and built anger in his audience.

In addition to verbal and nonverbal illustrations, visual imagery can enhance the emotional appeal of a message. For example, we have all heard about the dangers of drugs, and multiple campaigns attempt to prevent people from even trying them. However, many young adults experiment with drugs assuming they are immune from the negative effects if they only use the drug recreationally. To counter this assumption regarding methamphetamines, the Montana Meth project combines controversial statements with graphic images on billboards to evoke fear of the drug.

Young adults may have heard repeated warnings that meth is addictive and that it has the potential to cause sores, rotten teeth, and extreme weight loss. Still, Montana Meth Project's visual display is more compelling because it turns the audience's stomach, making the message memorable. This image, combined with the slogan, "not even once," conveys the persuasive point without needing other forms of evidence and rational argument.

Appeals to fear, like those in the Montana Meth Project ads, have proven effective in motivating people to change various behaviors. However, speakers must be careful with their use of this emotion. Fear appeals tend to be more effective when they appeal to a high-level fear, such as death, and they are more effective when offered by speakers with a high level of perceived credibility. Fear appeals are also more persuasive when the speaker can convince the audience they can avert the threat. If audiences doubt their ability to avoid or minimize the threat, the appeal may backfire.

David Brooks argues, "emotions are not separate from reason, but they are the foundation of reason because they tell us what to value." Those values are at the core of fostering a credible ethos. Aristotle's strategies, ethos, logos, and pathos are interdependent. The most persuasive speakers will combine these strategies to varying degrees based on their specific purpose and audience.

Ethics of Persuasion

In addition to considering their topic and persuasive strategy, speakers must ensure that their message is ethical. Persuasion is often confused with another kind of communication with similar ends but different methods – coercion. Like persuasion, coercion is a process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered. But in coercive acts, deceptive or harmful methods propel the intended changes, not reason.

Strong and Cook contrasted the two: "persuasion uses an argument to compel power to give way to reason while coercion uses force to compel reason to give way to power." The "force" that Strong and Cook mention frequently manifests as promises for reward or punishment, but sometimes it arises as physical or emotional harm. Think of almost any international crime film you have seen, and you will likely remember a scene where someone was compelled to out their compatriots by force.

Jack Bauer, the protagonist in the American television series 24, became an infamous character by doing whatever it took to get captured criminals to talk. Although dramatic as an example, those scenes where someone is tortured to produce evidence offer a familiar reference when thinking about coercion. To avoid coercing an audience, speakers should use logical and emotional appeals responsibly.

Persuasive speakers must be careful to avoid using fallacies in their reasoning. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence for their argument.

There are a wide variety of fallacies, and it is not possible to list them all here. However, speakers should watch for four common categories of fallacies: "fallacies of faulty assumption," which occur when the speaker reasons based on a problematic assumption; "fallacies directed to the person," which occur when the speaker focuses on the attributes of an individual opponent rather than the relevant arguments; "fallacies of case presentation," which occur when the speaker mischaracterizes the issue; and "fallacies of suggestion," which occur when the speaker implies or suggests an argument without fully developing it.

See Table 16.2 for examples of each type of fallacy.

Fallacies of Faulty Assumption
Casual Fallacy	It is cloudy outside, and I feel sick. Cloudy days make me sick. The school board voted to buy new picnic tables for the lunch room. Many students were out sick the following day. The students must be upset about the picnic tables.
Bandwagon Fallacy	Everyone takes a loan to buy a car, so you should too. None of the cool kids wear helmets when they ride bikes. You should take yours off.
Begging the Question	The Lion King is an excellent film because it has excellent animation. Marijuana is good for you because it is natural.
Fallacies Directed to the Person
Ad Hominem	We should reject President Obama's healthcare legislation because it is socialism.
Poisoning the Well	Before the defense makes its closing statement, remember that the client has not said one truthful word throughout the trial. My opponent will try to manipulate you into thinking her plan is better for the city.
Appeal to Flattery	First, I wanted to tell you that this is my favorite class. I will tell all my friends how much I love it. I just think I deserve a better grade on my exam. You are such a generous person. I know you'll want to donate to this cause.
Fallacies of Case Presentation
Non Sequitur	I do not plan to vote today because I am moving next week. You should clean your room because I am going to do the laundry.
Red Herring	I should not be fined for parking in a red zone when there are so many people out there committing real crimes like robbery and murder. War is wrong, but in times of crisis, we should support the president.
Appeal to Misplaced Authority	This diet is the best one for people with my health condition. Oprah said so. I want to visit the Museum of Modern Art. My English professor says they have the best collection anywhere!
Fallacies of Suggestion
Paralepsis	I am not saying he cheated; he did uncharacteristically well on that exam. If she wants to work for a crook, that's her business.
Either/Or	Either you are with us or against us. Love it or leave it.
Arrangement	I have so much to do today. I have to get my car fixed, finish a paper, take a nap, and pick my mom up from the airport. So many highly respected musicians will be there: Paul McCartney, Elton John, LMFAO, Billy Joel…

Table 16.2: Examples of Fallacies

There are some positive steps you can take to avoid these pitfalls of persuasive speaking and ensure that you are presenting your message most ethically. We have already discussed some of these, such as offering credible evidence for your arguments and showing concern for the audience's well-being. However, you should also offer a transparent goal for your speech. Even with a hostile audience, where you may wait until later in the speech to provide the specific purpose statement, you should be forthcoming about your specific purpose. Be truthful with your audience throughout the speech.

It is appropriate to use fictional scenarios to demonstrate your point, but tell the audience that is what you are doing. You can accomplish this by introducing fictional examples with the phrase "hypothetically" or "imagine" to signal that you are making it up. Additionally, be sure to offer a mix of logical and emotional appeals. Blending these strategies ensures that you have evidence to back up emotional claims and are sensitive to the audience's emotional reactions to your logical claims. Attending to both aspects will help you be more ethical and persuasive.