POLSC232: American Government

2a. Define the primary sources of political socialization in American society

• What is political socialization?
• What key factors contribute to political socialization in America?

Political socialization refers to how individuals form their political opinions, such as through their interactions with others. Agents of political socialization, such as parents, teachers, friends, coworkers, and media figures, often play a large role in influencing others. However, political engagement is far from uniform, and agents often conflict, such as when your friends and family have different political opinions.

We can base political ideologies on an individual's political generation, where groups share similar political beliefs because they lived through similar social, economic, or political experiences. For example, consider those who lived through the Great Depression (1929–39), the Vietnam War (1955–75), or the World Trade Center attack in 2001. Political events can occur during the most formative and impressionable years of political socialization (late adolescence to early adulthood) when a new generation of voters confronts new political and economic realities.

Today, the news and social media play a major role in our political socialization. For example, entertainment and media depictions of different social groups can greatly impact how we think about others and the world around us and influence how we engage in politics. Positive and negative depictions can shape American attitudes toward politics and government.

To review, see Political Ideology and Political Culture and Socialization.

2b. Describe the special role of the media and how it influences the American public and political behavior

• What role does the media play in American public opinion?
• How does the media influence political behavior?
• What do people mean when they call the media the fourth branch of government?
• How have new forms of media changed the American political landscape?

Some refer to the media as the fourth estate or fourth branch of government (after the executive, legislative, and judicial branches) because it is a vital link between politicians, government officials, and the public. The media keeps people informed about political issues and can shape public opinion by presenting the news the editors consider important. In a democracy, the media can highlight policies that work and uncover deception and corruption so voters can make informed choices about political candidates, public policy, and public institutions.

New forms of media, such as social media and blogging, have become important factors in American politics. The accessibility of these relatively new forms of media means anyone can report and share their interpretation of local, public, and civic events to a wide audience. On the one hand, this new accessibility allows individuals to distribute stories that traditional media outlets ignored in the past. On the other hand, authors are not bound to the same rigorous professional and ethical standards traditional journalists follow. Readers do not know whether the news stories reflect events accurately or were fabricated to support a particular hidden political agenda.

Competition among media distribution outlets means stories are shared so quickly with readers that editors have less time to check facts and determine whether the stories are newsworthy or were designed to hide certain facts. The 24-hour news cycle means public figures have less time to check for accuracy and craft thoughtful responses that will influence their policy-making.

To review, see Evolution of the Media, Regulating the Media, Impact of the Media, and Elections: New Media, New Challenges.

2c. Describe public opinion, how it is measured, and how it has evolved in American politics

• What is public opinion?
• What role do public opinion polls play in measuring public opinion? What are their limitations?
• Why is public opinion important in a democracy?
• What is the relationship between political socialization and public opinion?
• How have public opinion polls changed over time in the United States?

Public opinion refers to the collective preferences that a group of people, usually citizens or residents, have on government matters. It can be difficult to obtain an accurate reading of public opinion. When political scientists determine what the majority of the general public thinks (the sum of individual opinions), they describe the public opinion on an issue. Political leaders, the news media, interest groups, business marketing, and other national organizations can play a large role in shaping public opinion.

We can segment public opinion into different groups. For example, the attentive public pays close attention to the general issues of politics. Issue publics follow specific issues, such as the environment, defense spending, or healthcare. These individuals may not be as concerned about broader political issues because they may have a personal relationship with their issue of interest, such as a healthcare activist with a close family member with a medical condition.

Polls measure public opinion by asking about individual preferences on certain political issues. Politicians use this data as evidence to support why the government should take certain actions. For example, liberal politicians often point to public opinion polls on gun control policies to support creating new laws to restrict gun sales.

Democratic governments that aim to reflect the will of the people pay attention to public opinion so politicians can learn whether their policies match the preferences of the majority of their constituents. However, some argue that politicians should disregard public opinion polls when deciding on certain issues because the public is less informed about an issue, such as when public policy matters involve confidential information. Others complain that the polls ignore minority groups who also deserve a voice. Democratic governments have an ethical duty to protect their constituents, including the minority.

Straw polls conducted in the early days of the United States were often inaccurate. By the 1920s, researchers began using more scientifically-rigorous polling methods by gathering samples that reflected the population more accurately. Researchers continue to refine the polling process by introducing techniques such as probability sampling. They are also experimenting with alternative ways of measuring public opinion, such as public judgment and deliberative polling.

To review, see Nature of Public Opinion, How Public Opinion Is Measured, and What Does the Public Think?.

2d. Discuss how public opinion polling influences electoral outcomes

• What role does public opinion polling play in elections?
• What factors besides majority opinion matter in public polling?
• What are the limits of public opinion polling?

Public opinion polls can give political candidates a sense of how their constituents feel about certain issues so they can craft a political message that is relevant and appealing. This allows them to shape a platform responsive to the desires of the people they represent.

The intensity of an interest group's policy preferences can be critical. For example, a small number of constituents who care deeply about an issue may organize and convince other voters to follow them, while a large group with a passing interest may lack the motivation to act or show up on election day.

Public opinion polls measure public opinion on a given topic during a certain period. For example, new circumstances and facts can cause individuals to change their opinion frequently. Pollsters are also limited because they do not have the time or resources to talk to everyone. Consequently, they must rely on representative samples to gauge what a group of potential voters thinks. For example, if you take a poll that includes female voters, you may obtain a different response when you conduct a later poll that excludes them.

While sampling methods have improved, they do not reflect the population perfectly. Pollsters and those who take polls should also be aware that questions can be worded in ways that prompt respondents to choose a response that may misrepresent their position.

To review, see Effects of Public Opinion.

2e. Differentiate various methods voters employ to participate in politics

• What are some key ways voters participate in American politics beyond voting?

Americans participate in a wide range of civic activities beyond the ballot box. For example, many donate money to a certain political party or participate in pre-election activities, such as by making phone calls (phone banking) or visiting homes to encourage individuals to vote (canvassing).

Americans engage with their elected officials by participating in rallies and demonstrations, attending local town hall meetings, writing letters, making phone calls, and sending emails and tweets to express their thoughts about the issues they consider important.

We also contribute to political culture when we discuss political issues, candidates, and our voting plans with friends, family, and coworkers. When we go to vote, we set an example for our friends, family, and children that demonstrates we believe the electoral process is important to us and our community.

To review, see The 19th Amendment.

2f. Explain the characteristics of voter turnout, party identification, and issue preferences on how people vote

• What is voter turnout?
• Why is voter turnout important?
• What is party identification, and how does it affect voter turnout?
• How do issue preferences affect how people vote?
• Why do some people choose not to vote?
• What are some reforms that might encourage more people to vote?

Voter turnout refers to the number of people who submit a ballot by going to a polling station or submitting an absentee ballot to vote. This way, we can express our opinions or preferences in an election. Voter turnout is a key element of representative democracy and helps ensure the government reflects the interests of its constituents. Politicians tend to pay more attention to populations who vote for or against them because their election depends on them. Voter turnout also tends to predict whether citizens will engage in other forms of civic engagement.

Party identification or affiliation refers to the political party an individual tends to support, whether voting in an election, donating campaign funds, volunteering, or encouraging others to do the same. People who identify strongly with a political party are more likely to turn out to vote during the election.

Issue preferences refer to how individuals vote based on a specific public policy issue. For example, an individual who feels strongly about an issue, such as gun control, climate change, or reproductive health, is more likely to vote during an election when one candidate has taken a strong position for or against the issue they support. In some cases, issue preferences can predict party identification, but an individual's views do not always neatly align with the entire party platform.

While voting can be a primary way for citizens to influence their democratic government, fewer eligible voters participate in elections than in the past. Perhaps citizens are complacent or disenchanted with the political system. They may not identify with the candidates or political parties; the issues do not seem compelling or relevant; the candidates seem to take similar positions; or the individual feels their one vote will make little if any, difference. Many believe candidates only reward their big donors, lobbyists, and special interest groups. Likewise, voters in safe districts may be less inclined to vote when an incumbent candidate or party has almost assured a win because they believe they enjoy a majority.

Some suggest adopting a ranked-choice voting system that would allow third-party candidates to participate in elections more easily, a system that is in place in many European countries. Nonpartisan redistricting could also make these safe districts more competitive and force candidates to listen to those with opposing viewpoints. Others promote campaign finance reform to limit donations from wealthy individuals and companies so less wealthy voters have more say in policy decision-making. The media also needs to do a better job covering local elections, where smaller numbers can turn the tide on issues that affect the entire local community.

To review, see Voting Behavior and Intensity.

Unit 2 Vocabulary

• attentive public
• fourth estate
• issue preferences
• issue public
• media
• party identification
• political socialization
• polls
• public opinion
• voter turnout