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    COURSE INTRODUCTION
    Course Syllabus
    Unit 1: Introduction to Geography
    Unit 1 Learning Outcomes
    1.1: What Is Geography?
    The Where and the Why
    World Regional Map
    Introduction to Geography and the Five Themes
    1.2: Maps
    The Spatial Perspective
    Introduction to Using Maps
    Thematic Maps
    1.3: Geospatial Technology
    A Street Overlay
    A GIS User Interface
    An Ever-Evolving Map of Everything on Earth
    Comparing Satellite Navigation Orbits
    Images to Depict Urban Development
    Satellite Images
    1.4: Geography's Subdisciplines
    Maps Show Us Who We Are, Not Just Where We Are
    Subdisciplines of Human and Physical Geography
    Subdisciplines of Geography
    1.5: The Physical Environment and Human Activity
    The Physical Setting
    The African Swamp Protecting Earth's Environment
    1.6: The Human Setting and Globalization
    Concepts of Human Geography
    The Big Picture of Globalization
    The End of Globalization and the Beginning of Something New
    1.7: The World's Regions
    The World's Regions
    MapCheck: The World's Regions
    Unit 1 Assessment
    Unit 1 Assessment
    Unit 2: Europe
    Unit 2 Learning Outcomes
    2.1: Maps of Europe
    Political Map of Europe
    2.2: Europe's Physical Geography and Boundaries
    Map of Four Main Landforms of Europe
    European Physical Geography and Boundaries
    The Physical Geography of Europe
    2.3: Europe's Shifting Political Landscape
    Cooperation and Control in Europe
    2.4: European Exploration Sets the Stage for Colonialism
    Map of Colonial Africa
    2.5: The European Union
    Map of the European Union
    Why Brexit Happened – and What to Do Next
    2.6: Europe's Geography and Economic Development
    The Industrial Revolution
    Origins of the Industrial Revolution
    2.7: Historical Migration Patterns in Europe
    European Migration
    A New Approach to Defending the Human Rights of Migrants
    2.8: Does a European Identity Exist?
    Shifting National Identities
    2.9: Demographic Changes in Europe
    Map of the European Migrant Crisis
    Current Migration Patterns and Debates
    MapCheck: Europe
    Unit 2 Assessment
    Unit 2 Assessment
    Unit 3: Russia
    Unit 3 Learning Outcomes
    3.1: Maps of Russia
    Political Maps of Russia
    3.2: Russia's Physical Geography
    Russia's Physical Geography and Climate
    Russia and the Republics: Physical Geography
    3.3: Russia's Settlement Patterns and Environmental Challenges
    Russia's Population Density
    Settlement and Development Challenges
    Examples of Human Environmental Damage
    Russia: Environmental Problem Areas
    3.4: Russian History and Expansion
    Origin and Migration of Slavs in Europe
    Russian History and Expansion
    3.5: Russian Multiculturalism and Tensions
    Map of Soviet Nationalities by Republic
    Russian Multiculturalism and Tension
    Sovietization
    3.6: The Economy and Government During the Soviet Era
    Economics and Development in the Soviet Union
    Socialism vs. Communism
    Famine, Subjugation, and Nuclear Fallout: Russia and Ukraine
    3.7: The Russian Federation
    The Modern Russian Landscape
    Geography: Russia and the United States
    Map Check: Russia
    Unit 3 Assessment
    Unit 3 Assessment
    Unit 4: North America
    Unit 4 Learning Outcomes
    4.1: Maps of North America
    Political Map of North America
    4.2: North America's Physical Geography
    Physiographic Regions of North America
    The Earth's Tectonic Plates
    Classifying North America's Climate
    North America's Rain Shadow Effect
    North America's Physical Setting
    Landforms in the United States and Canada
    4.3: North American History and Settlement
    North American History and Settlement
    Territorial Claims in North America
    French Influence in Canada
    Canada's Indigenous Population
    North America's Western Frontier
    Westward Migration and North America's Indigenous Peoples
    Why Aren't There More Native American Restaurants?
    A History of Indigenous Languages
    4.4: Industrial Development in North America
    Industrial Development in North America
    Colin Grant Clark's Economic Model
    4.5: The North American Urban Landscape
    The Urban Landscape in North America
    Canada's Quebec-Windsor Corridor
    Urban Sprawl
    New York Before the City
    4.6: Patterns of Economic Inequality in North America
    Countries by Gini Coefficient
    Patterns of Inequality in North America
    Poverty in Toronto
    Cultural and Physical Connections
    4.7: North America's Global Connections
    North America's Global Connections
    Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Country
    The U.S. Economy and GDP
    Map Check: North America
    Unit 4 Assessment
    Unit 4 Assessment
    Unit 5: Middle and South America
    Unit 5 Learning Outcomes
    5.1: Maps of Middle and South America
    Maps of Middle America
    Map of South America
    5.2: The Physical Geography of Middle America and South America
    The Geographic Features of Middle and South America
    5.3: The Panama Canal
    The Panama Canal
    Views of the Panama Canal
    Panama Canal Timelapse: The Caribbean to Pacific
    5.4: Amazon River Basin
    The Amazon River Basin
    Warmer Ocean Temperatures and Saharan Dust
    Koppen–Geiger Climate Classification for South America
    The Forest is Our Teacher – It is Time to Respect It
    Indigenous People May Be the Amazon's Last Hope
    5.5: The Atacama Desert
    Map of the Atacama Desert
    Atacama Desert – the Ultimate Survival
    5.6: Earthquake and Volcano Hazards
    Tectonic Plates and Their Movement
    5.7: Hurricane Hazards
    Tropical Storm Tracks
    How a Hurricane Forms
    Average Sea Temperature and Hurricanes by Wind Strength
    5.8: The Colonization of Middle America
    Mainland and Rimland Characteristics of Middle America
    Colonization and Conquest in Middle America
    Languages of the Caribbean
    Pre-Colonial Caribbean
    Paths to Settle the Caribbean Islands
    Indigenous Peoples in the Americas
    5.9: The Colonization of South America
    Colonial Activity in South America
    The South American Colonial Landscape
    The Haitian Revolution
    Inca Expansion Map
    5.10: Urban Development in Middle and South America
    Urban Development in South America
    Urban Unrest Propels a Global Wave of Protests
    5.11: Income Inequality in Middle and South America
    Income Inequality in Middle and South America
    Inequality and Political Instability in Latin America
    5.12: Patterns of Globalization in Middle and South America
    Patterns of Globalization in Middle and South America
    The Deadly Genius of Drug Cartels
    Map Check: Middle America
    Map Check: South America
    Unit 5 Assessment
    Unit 5 Assessment
    Unit 6: Sub-Saharan Africa
    Unit 6 Learning Outcomes
    6.1: Maps of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Physical Features of Sub-Saharan Africa
    The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
    The Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa
    6.2: Sub-Saharan Africa's Physical Landscape
    Physical Landscape of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Physical Geography of Sub-Saharan Africa
    The Great Rift Valley
    Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification for Africa
    Africa by Satellite
    Photos of Africa from a Flying Lawn Chair
    6.3: Pre-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa
    The Dispersal of Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens
    Pre-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa
    History of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Powerful Stories That Shaped Africa
    The Golden Stool of the Ashanti
    Bronze Nigerian Ife Head of the Yoruba People
    Great Zimbabwe's Great Enclosure
    Sankore Madrasah in Timbuktu, Mali
    The Slave Trade Through a Ghanaian Lens
    6.4: The Colonization of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Sub-Saharan African Colonization
    African Slave Trade
    History of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Democracy in Africa: Success Stories That Defied the Odds
    African Countries by Human Development Index
    6.5: The Modern Landscape of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Filming Democracy in Ghana
    Modern Sub-Saharan African Landscape
    Lagos, Nigeria: The City That Keeps Growing
    Africa Population Density
    COVID-19 Shows Why African Data Is Key for the Continent's Response to Pandemics
    Fertility Rates and Life Expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa
    Population Displacement Due to Tigray Conflict
    Famine in Ethiopia: Eritrea's Long-Running Feud with Tigrayans
    6.6: Economics and Globalization in Sub-Saharan Africa
    Economics and Globalization in Sub-Saharan Africa
    Debt Distress in Africa: The Way Forward
    The Power of the Informal Economy
    Map Check: Sub-Saharan Africa
    Unit 6 Assessment
    Unit 6 Assessment
    Unit 7: North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Unit 7 Learning Outcomes
    7.1: Maps of North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Map of North Africa and Southwest Asia
    7.2: Geographic Features and Cultural Adaptations of North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Map of Water in the Middle East
    North Africa and Southwest Asia's Key Geographic Features
    Physical Geography of the Middle East and North Africa
    7.3: Urbanization in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Effect of Urbanization in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    7.4: The Arabian Peninsula's Oil Resources
    Oil Resources in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Saudi Arabia's Major Oil and Gas Infrastructure
    7.5: Sub-Region of Central Asia
    Map of Central Asia
    Silk Road Trade
    Silk Routes in Central Asia and Afghanistan
    Another View of Central Asia
    Kyrgyzstan and Its Enclaves and Exclave
    Enclaves in Kyrgyzstan
    Afghanistan's Vast Mineral Wealth
    7.6: The Religious Hearths of North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina
    Religion in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Semitic Religions
    Geography of Conflict: Searching for Peace in the Middle East
    7.7: Conquest in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Conquest in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Russian Turkestan
    7.8: The Impact of Conquest on the Caucasus Sub-Region
    Countries of the Caucasus
    Armenian Genocide
    7.9: Decolonization and Western Sahara
    Spanish and French Protectorates in Morocco and Spanish Sahara
    Moroccan Walls in Western Sahara
    Wall South of Mahebs
    Morocco and Western Sahara: A Decades-Long War of Attrition
    7.10: The Modern Political Landscape of North Africa and Southwest Asia
    The Political Landscape
    Yemen: Understanding the Conflict
    Who Are Yemen's Houthis?
    7.11: Religious Conflict in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Religious Conflict in North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Islamic Faith and Tradition
    Human Rights for Women
    Map Check: North Africa and Southwest Asia
    Unit 7 Assessment
    Unit 7 Assessment
    Unit 8: South Asia
    Unit 8 Learning Outcomes
    8.1: Maps of South Asia
    Map of South Asia
    8.2: South Asia's Physical Geography
    South Asia's Physical Landscape
    Physical Geography of South Asia
    Physical Map of South Asia
    Climate of South Asia and Afghanistan
    The Nepal Gorkha Earthquake and Its Aftershocks
    Convergent Plate Boundary
    Langtang Village in the Langtang Valley
    Monsoon Rains and Clean Water in Pakistan
    Shallow Groundwater Storage in Southern Asia
    The Maldives: Rising Seas and Coastal Development
    8.3: Human Settlement and Culture in South Asia
    Patterns of Human Settlement in South Asia
    Cultural Groups in South Asia
    Geography and Origins of Culture in South Asia
    East Versus West: The Myths That Mystify
    Britain's Indian Empire
    The Partition of India (1947)
    Sri Lanka's Protests Show a Fragile Unity
    Distribution of Languages and Religious Groups in Sri Lanka
    8.4: South Asia's Modern Landscape and Future Challenges
    South Asia's Population Dynamics
    Challenges and Opportunities in South Asia
    Geography of South Asia Modern Issues
    Green Revolution
    Population Pyramids Help Predict the Future
    Population Pyramid for Bhutan
    Walking in Old Dhaka, Bangladesh and New Delhi, India
    Many Faces of Inequality in India
    How Can We Create Happy Societies?
    Map Check: South Asia
    Unit 8 Assessment
    Unit 8 Assessment
    Unit 9: East and Southeast Asia
    Unit 9 Learning Outcomes
    9.1: Maps of East and Southeast Asia
    Map of East and Southeast Asia
    9.2: The Physical Geography of East and Southeast Asia
    Climate of East and Southeast Asia
    Physical Landscape of East and Southeast Asia
    Southeast Asia Physical Geography
    9.3: Tsunami Hazards
    Tsunami Wavefield for the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake
    Earthquakes, Decoupled Faulting, and Tsunamis
    Tsunami Generation
    Tsunami Splitting
    9.4: Volcano Hazards
    Indonesia's Volcanoes
    Formation of a Stratovolcano
    Eruption of Mt. Merapi
    Mount Rainier Lahars
    Living with Natural Disasters
    9.5: Human Settlement and Civilization in East and Southeast Asia
    East and Southeast Asia: History and Settlement
    Foundations of East Asian Culture
    9.6: Confucianism and Taoism
    Confucius and Confucianism
    The Ancient, Earth-Friendly Wisdom of Mongolian Nomads
    9.7: China and the Silk Routes
    Rebuilding the Silk Road
    China's Belt and Road Initiative
    9.8: Medieval Empires of the Southeast Asian Peninsula
    A Metropolis Arose in Medieval Cambodia
    The Khmer Empire
    9.9: Colonialism in East and Southeast Asia
    China and European Colonialism
    9.10: Political Conflict and Change in East and Southeast Asia
    Political Conflicts and Changes in East and Southeast Asia
    Chinese Communist Revolution, a Global Perspective
    Decolonization and the Cold War Through an Asian Lens
    Geography of East Asia: Modern Issues
    Interpretations of Communism
    Escaping the Khmer Rouge
    Escape from North Korea
    The Korean Peninsula at Night
    A Year After Myanmar's Coup
    The Rohingya Quest for Better Refuge
    The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
    9.11: The Modern Landscape and Patterns of Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia
    Patterns of Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia
    Global China into the 21st Century
    Hong Kong's Handover to China
    Architecture in Modern Singapore
    Comparing Singapore and Hong Kong
    China's Global Infrastructure Projects
    Deforestation
    Map Check: East Asia
    Map Check: Southeast Asia
    Unit 9 Assessment
    Unit 9 Assessment
    Unit 10: Oceania
    Unit 10 Learning Outcomes
    10.1: Maps of Oceania
    Map of Australia and New Zealand
    10.2: The Physical Geography of Australia and New Zealand
    The Climate of Australia and New Zealand
    10.3: The Physical Geography of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia
    Melanesia
    Climate and Topography of Melanesia
    Micronesia
    Climate and Topography of Micronesia
    Polynesia
    Climate and Topography of Polynesia
    Hotspot
    The Hawai'i Hot Spot
    10.4: The Physical Geography of Antarctica
    Glacial Ice Formation
    Map of Antarctica
    The Physical Landscape of Oceania
    The Breakup of the Supercontinent Pangaea
    Wallace's and Weber's Lines
    10.5: The World's Oceans and Polar Frontiers
    Haunting Photos of Polar Ice
    Exploring Antarctica: To the South Pole and Back
    World's Oceans and Polar Frontiers
    Amundsen-Scott Research Station
    Kilometers Below the Antarctic Ice Sheet
    Drilling Through the Arctic Ice
    Scientists Drill Deep in Antarctic Ice for Clues to Climate Change
    Ice Sheet Dynamics
    10.6: Human Settlement and Economic Activity in Oceania
    The Patterns of Human Settlement in Australia and the Pacific
    Stories My Family Forgot: Assimilation of Indigenous Communities
    Australian Residents by Country of Birth
    Australia's Core Areas
    Population Density of New Zealand
    Pacific Nations Grapple with COVID's Terrible Toll
    Eruption of the Hunga Tonga Volcano
    Laws Governing Undersea Cables Have Hardly Changed Since 1884
    10.7: Oceania's Environmental Challenges
    The Changing Landscape of Oceania
    The Thawing of Antarctica
    Kiribati and Sea Level Rise
    My Country Will Be Underwater Soon Unless We Work Together
    Antarctica's Riskiest Glacier Is Under Assault
    Ordinance Dumping and Environmental Degradation
    Map Check: Oceania
    Unit 10 Assessment
    Unit 10 Assessment
    Study Guide
    GEOG101 Study Guide
    Course Feedback Survey
    Course Feedback Survey
    Certificate Final Exam
    GEOG101: Certificate Final Exam
    Saylor Direct Credit
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Table of contents

  • Countries of the Caucasus
  • Caucasus Terrain
  • Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Caucasus
  1. GEOG101: World Regional Geography
  2. Unit 7: North Africa and Southwest Asia
  3. 7.8: The Impact of Conquest on the Caucasus Sub-Region
  4. Countries of the Caucasus

Countries of the Caucasus

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Caucasus Terrain

Figure 7.15 Caucasus Terrain (Bourrichon English translations, additions, and corrections by Ketone16, 2016. CC BY-SA 4.0.)

Figure 7.15 Caucasus Terrain

Source: Ketone16, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

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Saylor Academy © 2010-2025 except as otherwise noted. Excluding course final exams, content authored by Saylor Academy is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Third-party materials are the copyright of their respective owners and shared under various licenses. See detailed licensing information. Saylor Academy®, Saylor.org®, and Harnessing Technology to Make Education Free® are trade names of the Constitution Foundation, a 501(c)(3) organization through which our educational activities are conducted.