The Khmer Empire

During the early 13th century, the Khmer Empire extended beyond the current borders of Cambodia and included parts of present-day Thailand, as shown in Figure 9.13. The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960–1279, a period of economic prosperity and extraordinary innovation: the population grew, cities expanded, and intellectual pursuits thrived. This period ended when the Mongols invaded China in 1279.

Figure 9.13 shows other kingdoms that shaped the human landscape of the Southeast Asian mainland during the early 13th century. The Kingdom of Dai Viet, or Annam, was centered in the present-day city of Hanoi in north Vietnam. Dai Viet was the precursor to modern Vietnam and is the source of much of its cultural identity. The Dali Kingdom is now part of China.

The Pagan Empire, or Bagan Empire, was the precursor to modern Myanmar (Burma). It ruled the Irrawaddy River valley and the surrounding area. Bagan was the kingdom's capital and is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Like the Song Dynasty, the Kingdom of Bagan was prosperous, building thousands of Buddhist temples, pagodas, and monasteries. Like the Song Dynasty, the Bagan Empire could not withstand the Mongols and collapsed in 1287.

Dharmasraya was part of the Buddhist Melayu Kingdom, which is now part of present-day Malaysia. The Hariphunchai Kingdom existed in present-day Thailand before the Thai people settled there.

The Arakan Kingdom existed in present-day Myanmar, coinciding with the State of Rakhine. The Arakanese people are also known as the Rakhine. The Rohingya people live in Myanmar's State of Rakhine, but the current government has denied them citizenship. We consider their situation at the end of this section.