Unit 9: East and Southeast Asia
The region of East and Southeast Asia is home to nearly one-third of the world's population. China is its largest country in terms of area and population. The region is highly urbanized because many of the countries are small islands – it includes some of the largest, most densely populated cities in the world. The physical geography is diverse, although much of the region has a tropical climate. The region is tectonically active due to its proximity to the Ring of Fire, with earthquake, volcano, and tsunami hazards.
A history of colonialism within and beyond the region continues to influence its human geography. Like other regions, it is culturally diverse and sees conflicts among its ethnic and religious groups. Territorial disputes continue to this day, especially with respect to China. East and Southeast Asia is a critical player in the global economy because it is home to several global financial and electronics manufacturing centers. Generally, the region has a moderate level of income inequality. It includes the communist countries of China, Vietnam, and Laos.
Because several countries are in various stages of industrialization, the associated environmental issues are particularly acute. Like the region of South Asia, the region of East and South East has incurred further environmental damage due to outsourcing. Overseas companies locate their production facilities in places like Vietnam, which results in air, water, and soil contamination.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.
Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
- summarize the physical geography of East and Southeast Asia, including its natural hazards and environmental challenges;
- identify the paths of human settlement throughout East and Southeast Asia, including its location as a cultural hearth;
- explain the impact of colonialism on the region, including the concepts of shatter belt, domino theory, and the implementation of communism;
- describe how factors such as location and population density have impacted the region's economic development, industrialization, and environmental challenges; and
- identify and explain the origins of territorial tensions in the region.
9.1: Maps of East and Southeast Asia
Let's begin our examination of East and Southeast Asia by studying some maps of the region.
Study the map in Figure 9.1 so you are familiar with the countries, cities, and geographic features in East and Southeast Asia. Note that Myanmar is labeled Burma on this map because it was created by a U.S. government agency. The United States had refused to call the country Myanmar to protest the military's oppressive measures against pro-democracy demonstrators.
In 1989, the ruling junta changed its name to Myanmar to improve its image as a pariah state in the international community. Nevertheless, Myanmar has always been the name of the country in the Burmese language.
9.2: The Physical Geography of East and Southeast Asia
The region of East and Southeast Asia includes the mainland and insular (or island) countries. The South China Sea, East China Sea, and the Sea of Japan separate the mainland and insular countries of East and Southeast Asia. The mainland and insular sub-regions include the countries listed below. Three of the countries in the insular region include many islands, while Malaysia straddles the mainland and insular sub-regions.
Malaysia extends from the Malay Peninsula in the west, across the South China Sea, to the island of Borneo in the east. Indonesia is the world's largest island country and includes more than 17,000 islands. The Philippines includes more than 7,500 islands. Given the challenges associated with governing a country separated by large bodies of water, some countries, such as Indonesia, have chosen to grant some provinces more autonomy.- The mainland countries of East and Southeast Asia include Cambodia, China, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar (Burma), North Korea, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam.
- The insular countries of East and Southeast Asia include Brunei, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and Timor-Leste (East Timor).
The mainland and the insular parts of the region are predominantly temperate and tropical below 35° north latitude. Southern South Korea intersects 35°N. Several of the insular countries, such as Indonesia, straddle or are close to the Equator. Above 35° north latitude, there is more variation, including arid and continental climates.
Typhoons and cyclones frequently strike the countries of this region. Remember from Unit 5 that we call tropical storms cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons based on their location. See Figure 9.2.The insular portion of this region is particularly vulnerable to the hazards of tectonic activity (such as volcanic eruptions and tsunamis) due to its proximity to the Pacific Ring of Fire. The mainland has experienced earthquakes due to the Himalayan Mountains, which we learned are also tectonically active (see Unit 8). You will also recognize the Tian Shan mountain range from the region of North Africa and Southwest Asia. The Tian Shan Mountains are also a key feature in the region of East and Southeast Asia.
Rivers on the mainland have played a significant role in the development of civilizations in this region, but they have also contributed to several disasters.
The two mainland deserts, the Gobi Desert and the Taklamakan Desert, are rainshadow deserts (see Unit 4). Desertification has increased the size of the Gobi Desert, which now contributes to poor air quality in some of China's cities. Desertification is also threatening farmland.
Read this text to learn more about the physical geography of this region and its natural hazards.Watch these two videos. Rueschhoff notes that China considers the island of Taiwan to be part of the People's Republic of China. However, Taiwan believes it is the legitimate government of China.
9.3: Tsunami Hazards
The Sumatran-Andaman earthquake on Dec. 26, 2004, generated a tsunami that devastated parts of Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, and the Maldives.
Animation 9.1 shows the geographic extent of the tsunami's waves. Aceh province, on the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, bore the brunt of the wave action. This tsunami killed 167,540 people in Indonesia alone.
In Japanese, the word tsu means harbor, and nami means wave. Large earthquakes and landslides that occur under or near the ocean cause tsunamis. During the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake in 2004, the overriding plate slipped along the fault line, moving vertically away from the subducting plate, as shown in Figure 9.4.
This vertical movement along the thrust fault caused the seafloor on the overriding plate to displace upward, away from the coastline, and down, dropping (subsiding) landward toward the coastline, as shown in Figure 9.5.
The vertical displacement of the plate results in the vertical displacement of the water above it. The resulting wave spits into two waves that travel in opposite directions, as shown in Figure 9.6, creating the effect seen in Animation 9.1. Indonesia, Thailand, and nearby islands bore the brunt of the "local tsunami", which arrived less than an hour after the earthquake. Eric Geist, the USGS geophysicist from the Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center, has written that "if you see the tsunami, it is too late to outrun it".
9.4: Volcano Hazards
Indonesia has suffered from several volcanic eruptions since Mount Krakatoa and Mount Tambora erupted in the early 19th century – although they have not been as large, they have been devastating.
Figure 9.10 shows the volcanoes in Indonesia, including Krakatau and Tambora. It also shows Mount Merapi on the island of Java, which is one of the world's most active volcanoes, erupting frequently. Indonesia, an archipelago of more than 17,000 islands and islets, has nearly 130 active volcanoes.
Most of Indonesia's volcanoes are stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes. As shown in Figure 9.11, these volcanoes are typically highly explosive due to the high silica content of the magma. Magma with a high silica content allows gases to build up and forms lava that moves slowly. Lava is magma that has reached the Earth's surface.
The pyroclastic material ejected from stratovolcanoes is far more dangerous than the lava. Pyroclastic is derived from the Greek words for "fire" and "broken into pieces". Geologists refer to fragments or pieces of pre-existing rocks and minerals as "clasts". Pyroclastic flows contain searing hot ash, pumice, and gas and can move up to 110 km per hour.
Other types of volcanoes, such as the shield volcanoes of Hawaii, have magma with a low silica content, so the lava flows faster. The reason for the difference in silica content has to do with the composition of the tectonic plate. Continental plates have a higher silica content than oceanic plates.- Humans often settle on the slopes of volcanoes due to their fertile soils. Thousands of people live on the slopes of Mount Merapi. Given the high population density on Indonesia's island of Java, the impact on humans is particularly acute. Nearly 70,000 people live in the immediate vicinity of the ancient royal city of Yogyakarta, with a population of about 375,000, which is only 25 km to the south.
Watch this video of the eruption of Mount Merapi on March 3, 2020. Here is a translation of the text posted with the video."Today, Tuesday, March 3, 2020, at 05.22 WIB, Mount Merapi in the Special Region of Yogyakarta erupted again. In addition, according to BPPTKG (Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi), the eruption of Mount Merapi also triggered [pyroclastic flows that moved downslope along the] Gendol River [for] 2 kilometers.'The direction of the wind during the eruption was from the north', said the statement on the official BPPTKG Twitter account. This time, the Merapi eruption was recorded on a seismograph with a maximum amplitude of 75 mm and a duration of 450 seconds. This eruption of Mount Merapi is the second time that it occurred in 2020; the first eruption occurred on February 13, 2020. The eruption of Mount Merapi today also affected the closure of Adi Soemarmo Airport in Solo, Central Java, according to a notice to airmen (NOTAM) numbered B0614/20 NOTAMN issued by AirNav Indonesia." Volcanic lightning may occur during the early stages of an eruption. Scientists think that ice forms when the smoke plume rises from the volcano. As the altitude of the plume increases, the water vapor it contains begins to form ice. Then, lightning forms the same way it does in a cloud during a storm. The colliding ice crystals build enough of an electric charge to generate lightning.
In addition to its deadly pyroclastic flows, Indonesia's Mount Merapi is also prone to lahars, an Indonesian word used worldwide for mud or debris flows.
Watch this video to see what a lahar looks like. Although the video is focused on the Mount Rainier stratovolcano in the northwest United States, lahars on Indonesian stratovolcanoes like Mount Merapi follow the same process. Volcanic lightning may occur during the early stages of an eruption. Scientists think that ice forms when the smoke plume rises from the volcano. As the altitude of the plume increases, the water vapor it contains begins to form ice. Then, lightning forms the same way it does in a cloud during a storm. The colliding ice crystals build enough of an electric charge to generate lightning.
In addition to its deadly pyroclastic flows, Indonesia's Mount Merapi is also prone to lahars, an Indonesian word used worldwide for mud or debris flows.
Watch this video to see what a lahar looks like. Although the video is focused on the Mount Rainier stratovolcano in the northwest United States, lahars on Indonesian stratovolcanoes like Mount Merapi follow the same process.The people of East and Southeast Asia have lived with these threats of disaster for centuries. Although early warning systems are in place, many are concerned the population has become complacent. People choose where to settle for personal reasons in addition to historical, economic, and cultural reasons. Read this article to learn the role fate appears to play in how Indonesians respond to natural hazards.
9.5: Human Settlement and Civilization in East and Southeast Asia
Given that Chinese civilization stretches back 4,000 years, tracing the evolution of this region's human geography is challenging.
As you read the text and watch the two videos, make sure you can answer these questions.
- Where did human civilization originate in this region? How does it compare with other regions we have studied?
- Why did people migrate to Japan and the islands of Southeast Asia?
- Why was China isolated from the rest of the world? What prompted it to explore and make connections in the interior of Asia?
- What was the extent of the Mongol Empire?
- Why is rice a staple crop in this region?
- How did Buddhism diffuse to and throughout this region? How about Islam and Christianity?
- What is the significance of Angkor Wat to Cambodia?
- Where did Confucianism and Taoism originate?
- What are the Maritime Silk Routes?
- What foreign powers colonized the countries of this region? Why did they want to control this region?
- What was the extent of the Japanese Empire, and how was a small island country able to achieve its territorial goals?
Watch these two videos on the culture and geography in Southeast Asia.
9.6: Confucianism and Taoism
The videos you just watched refer to Confucianism and Taoism as religions, but many people argue we should call them philosophies.
Taoism encourages its followers to respect and protect nature. It teaches the need for peace and harmony between humans and the environment. The nomadic population of Mongolia provides yet another example of an indigenous culture that has survived in harmony with the land their ancestors chose to settle.Watch this video, which describes how the Chinese philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism have influenced management strategies in China.
Watch this video where Khulan Bathhuyag, an environmental activist, describes her return to her Mongolian roots.
9.7: China and the Silk Routes
Unlike the isolationist Qin Dynasty, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty connected China to the Silk Routes because he wanted to take advantage of the trade opportunities the network offered.
The Han Dynasty's management of the Silk Road helped link together smaller regional networks and support trade across Asia. When the Han Dynasty fell, traders from Central Asia operated parts of the Silk Routes. Other empires provided stability until the Tang Dynasty, when Chinese imperial power recovered and a golden age was launched. Watch this video to learn more about the Silk Routes.
Recently, China has taken the Iron Silk Road to another level and launched its Belt and Road Initiative. Figure 9.12 shows the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank members in orange, the proposed overland corridors, or the Land Silk Road, in black, and the Maritime Silk Road in blue.
Using many of the original Silk Routes, China wants to use trade and infrastructure to increase its global influence. China plans to provide funding to more than 100 countries for roads, railways, power plants, ports, and other infrastructure projects. China's goal is to complete the project by 2049, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China.
9.8: Medieval Empires of the Southeast Asian Peninsula
There are more than a thousand temples in the Angkor Wat archaeological site, which covers about 400 sq km. In 2021, scientists published research suggesting that as many as 700,000–900,000 people may have lived in this Khmer metropolis during the 13th century.
Read this article to learn how they arrived at the estimate of how many people lived in the Angkor Empire.
During the early 13th century, the Khmer Empire extended beyond the current borders of Cambodia and included parts of present-day Thailand, as shown in Figure 9.13. The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960–1279, a period of economic prosperity and extraordinary innovation: the population grew, cities expanded, and intellectual pursuits thrived. This period ended when the Mongols invaded China in 1279.
Figure 9.13 shows other kingdoms that shaped the human landscape of the Southeast Asian mainland during the early 13th century. The Kingdom of Dai Viet, or Annam, was centered in the present-day city of Hanoi in north Vietnam. Dai Viet was the precursor to modern Vietnam and is the source of much of its cultural identity. The Dali Kingdom is now part of China.
The Pagan Empire, or Bagan Empire, was the precursor to modern Myanmar (Burma). It ruled the Irrawaddy River valley and the surrounding area. Bagan was the kingdom's capital and is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Like the Song Dynasty, the Kingdom of Bagan was prosperous, building thousands of Buddhist temples, pagodas, and monasteries. Like the Song Dynasty, the Bagan Empire could not withstand the Mongols and collapsed in 1287.
Dharmasraya was part of the Buddhist Melayu Kingdom, which is now part of present-day Malaysia. The Hariphunchai Kingdom existed in present-day Thailand before the Thai people settled there.
The Arakan Kingdom existed in present-day Myanmar, coinciding with the State of Rakhine. The Arakanese people are also known as the Rakhine. The Rohingya people live in Myanmar's State of Rakhine, but the current government has denied them citizenship. We consider their situation at the end of this section.
9.9: Colonialism in East and Southeast Asia
The European powers colonized much of East and Southeast Asia, but there are some notable exceptions. Europe never colonized Thailand, which served as an independent buffer between British Myanmar (Burma) in the west and French-controlled Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos in the east.
Europe had economic inroads but never controlled China to the extent that it colonized other places in the region. China was more technologically advanced than other societies. They had established transportation networks and were using paper and gunpowder before the Europeans arrived. They also recognized the necessity of clean water to avoid the spread of disease.
However, Britain gained a technological advantage during the Industrial Revolution. The British were able to produce goods more quickly than the Chinese, and they pushed the government to allow them to sell opium throughout Chinese society. The Chinese government attempted to destroy this market to counter the destructive effects of opium on their population. However, the British gained the upper hand when they defeated China during the Opium Wars.
The Qing Empire ceded Hong Kong Island to the British as a condition of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing), following the First Opium War. In 1860 the British colony of Hong Kong expanded to include the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island after the Second Opium War. In 1898, the British obtained a 99-year lease on the New Territories, which includes the area north of Kowloon and the outlying islands of Lantau, Lamma, and others.
Portugal, Germany, France, Japan, and Russia also had a colonial influence on China. Portugal predated the British when they rented the island of Macau from China to use as a trading post. They gained full colonial control of the outpost after the Opium Wars. Trade motivated Portugal and Spain to reach East and Southeast Asia during the 16th century, followed by the Netherlands, Britain, and France. Japan occupied much of Southeast Asia during World War II, including Thailand.
We see several examples of how the colonial powers influenced the culture of East and Southeast Asia. For example, as in India and Pakistan, English is a recognized language in Malaysia and an official language in Singapore (both former British colonies). Catholicism (brought by the Spanish and Portuguese) remains the dominant religion of the Philippines and Timor-Leste.
French is spoken in Laos, and Portuguese is an official language in Timor-Leste. You will also hear Indonesians use several Dutch words when you travel there. Figure 9.14 shows the Municipal Theatre that Ferret Eugene, the French architect, built in Ho Chi Minh City in the French Colonial architectural style in 1897.
While China did not colonize Southeast Asia, it has influenced its culture. Of those who live overseas, more Chinese live in Southeast Asia than anywhere else. For example, more than 75% of Singapore's population and nearly 25% of Malaysia's population are ethnically Chinese. Many of these immigrants fled the political division in mainland China from 1912–1949. They have maintained ties to their homeland and have created economic connections during the age of globalization. Their ability to speak Chinese and the language of their adopted country facilitates business opportunities.
9.10: Political Conflict and Change in East and Southeast Asia
In this section, we touch on some of the international and domestic conflicts in East and Southeast Asia since World War II.
Read this text for background on the wars and regime changes that have altered the human landscape of the region. Note that Finlayson used the word "anecdote" when she should have said "metaphor" in her description of the domino theory.
China was not always the dominant country in this region. The Communist Revolution was a turning point in Chinese history that was fundamental to helping shape what it is today. Watch this video to learn more about the origins and transformational effects of this revolution.
Other countries in Southeast Asia also embraced the ideals of communism. Decolonization and the competing interests of the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies have also played a role in shaping these societies. Watch this video which describes how events unfolded in Korea and Vietnam.
Watch these two videos to consider some of the economic issues in the region.
Many countries in East and Southeast Asia adopted one-party rule and instituted policies that violently suppressed dissent and support for opposition parties when they implemented communism after World War II. We often forget that modern communism was a reaction to the negative consequences of the Industrial Revolution.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels observed the exploitation of the working class and presented an alternative system that would place the major means of production (mines, mills, factories, and railroads) and the resulting profits in the hands of the public.
Read this article for another perspective on communism. Kellner reinforces the point that communism is often equated with totalitarianism. To date, no country has been able to implement communism without curtailing individual freedoms. Typically, the government claims to act on behalf of the public as it assumes ownership of the means of production (taken away from private businesses and the merchant class) and decides how profits will be used. The government demands complete public obedience to make this happen.Millions of people died in China, Cambodia, and North Korea when their governments tried to implement communism. Watch these videos to learn what it was like to live under the conditions in Cambodia and North Korea. Note that Cambodia is no longer a communist country, but North Korea is.
Watch this video where Sophal Ear, an economist, presents his experience as a child in Cambodia.Watch this video where Hyeonseo Lee describes her escape from North Korea. Most regard North Korea's version of communism as the most repressive in the world. Its citizens and centralized economy are tightly controlled; individuals cannot move freely and can only access state-run media. Living conditions for North Koreans are desperate, with food shortages and inadequate energy to provide electricity consistently.
Figure 9.15 is a 2014 image of the Korean Peninsula taken from the International Space Station. It shows North Korea in the dark except for the capital city, Pyongyang. The largest bright area is Seoul, South Korea, located just across the border. China, Vietnam, and Laos are also communist countries, but their economies are more open even if the freedoms of their citizens are curtailed.
It is not surprising that conflicts continue in East and Southeast Asia, given its colonial history and strategic location. In 2021, Myanmar's military seized power from the democratically-elected party of Aung San Suu Kyi in a coup. The military government has responded to protests with violence, and human rights abuses are widespread. Ethnic groups continue to fight for increased autonomy and independence.
Read this article for more on the situation in Myanmar.Read this article on the plight of the Rohingya people, a Muslim community connected to Rakhine State. In 1882, Myanmar's Citizenship Law excluded the Rohingya from full citizenship because it claimed they were not an official indigenous race.
The Rohingya have been violently driven from their homes with charges of genocide. However, few countries are willing to provide them with a safe haven.The article mentions the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a union of ten Asia-Pacific countries that promotes cooperation among its member states and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and sociocultural integration (See Figure 9.16). Its activities are similar to the European Union (EU).
Although ASEAN does not recognize Myanmar's military government, it has not condemned its authoritarian regime, persecution of ethnic groups, or human rights abuses.
9.11: The Modern Landscape and Patterns of Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia
This region has experienced significant economic growth, but the benefits are not evenly distributed. Long considered one of the Four Asian Tigers, Hong Kong is undergoing changes that could affect its position as a global business hub. A former British colony, Hong Kong was not transferred to China until 1997.
Read this text to learn about the role global connections and relative location have played in this economic success and the challenges of corruption that remain.
Despite living under authoritarian rule, China's global economic success has dramatically improved the lives of its people. While many people around the world feel threatened by globalization, most people in China view it positively. Watch this video to learn more about China's "great social contract".
The residents of Hong Kong (and much of the international community) had hoped China would continue following a policy that allowed Hong Kong to manage its own affairs as a free-market economy, with independent courts and protection of basic political rights. However, China changed course in 2020.
Read this article to learn more about the conditions in Hong Kong.Singapore is another Asian Tiger that was once a British colony. If Hong Kong is a financial center and South Korea is a center for manufacturing electronics, Singapore is a center for global shipping. Recall the visualization in Rueschhoff's video of the ships moving between Europe and East Asia through the Strait of Malacca and stopping in Singapore.
Watch this video on Singapore's economic success through the eyes of its former master planner architect, Liu Thai Ker.Watch this video, which compares Singapore with Hong Kong. Liu Thai Ker's commitment to green space is clearly evident in the video.
Hong Kong continues to rival Singapore as a global financial capital despite China's legislation to curtail its autonomy and freedoms.
Read this article to learn about China's efforts to influence global economic development. The authors argue China's Belt and Road Initiative could harm the biodiversity and indigenous populations of the places where it wants to invest.
Although China has committed to supporting sustainable energy options in the developing countries that participate in their initiative, the environmental and cultural impact is expected to be significant.Damage to local environments is a frequent byproduct of economic growth. Palm oil is a productive and lucrative crop that yields far more oil at a lower production cost than other vegetable oils. Indonesia and Malaysia are the biggest producers of palm oil, with millions of hectares of oil palms. To grow these trees, native forests have been burned or clear-cut.
See Figure 9.17, which shows land deforested for oil palm trees on Malaysia's Borneo island. The loss of biodiversity is compounded by the air pollution and soil erosion associated with burning the rainforest to make way for the oil palms.
Rising sea levels due to climate change have already begun to affect the region of East and Southeast Asia. Scientists predict Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, the Mekong Delta, peninsular Malaysia, and low-lying locations may be underwater by 2050. Melting ice in Antarctica, a part of Oceania we study in Unit 10, also contributes to the inundation of some of Oceania's islands and other low-lying areas around the world.
Unit 9 Assessment
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