Art and Ritual Life
The Sacred Interior
Ritual and Devotional Objects
In devotional centers where philosophical or religious beliefs allow the use of figural imagery, cult statues and other images of deities or persons associated with the ideology are important focal points for worshippers. Some, like the cross, are essential statements; others play subsidiary roles designed for amplifying or enhancing the spiritual experience and providing additional opportunities for contemplation or stimulus of devotional response.
As we have noted,
Buddhist and Hindu temple complexes often have a great array of
portrayals of deities and/or spiritual leaders, as befits polytheistic
religions. Part of the complaint of the Protestant revolt was that
Christian churches had become too similar in spirit to polytheistic
cults, with the wide selection of saints comprising a system that seemed
no longer sufficiently focused on the central singular God. Part of the
effect, in artistic terms, was that the decoration of many Protestant
churches changed character as well as liturgical focus eliminating many
of the lavish accouterments that had accrued around Catholic ritual.
While few general rules exist for Christian decoration, Catholic churches usually have a large and prominent crucifix above the
main altar where the Mass/Eucharist, the primary religious ritual for
Catholics, is celebrated; Protestant sites are more likely to have a
plainer cross or none at all and are unlikely to have an altar.
Throughout the ages, the character of the crucifix has seen tremendous
variation, from an expression of the extreme suffering of Christ to a
much more iconic expression of the belief behind the symbol. Between the
time of Christianity's legitimization in 313 CE and the tenth century,
for example, representations of Christ on the cross generally showed him
as alive, having gloriously defied death. Crosses also varied
considerably in scale.
The
Gero Crucifix (c. 965-970), now placed over a side altar in Cologne
Cathedral, Germany, compared to others of its era, was very large at six
feet, two inches, and was considered to be provocative in eliciting
contemplation of the suffering of Christ. (Figure 10.28) Over the next
several centuries, depictions of Christ on the cross in northern
Europe would increasingly emphasize the agony of the human being in the
throes of death, as opposed to his everlasting triumph, in ever more
graphic portrayals of the event central to Catholic worship and to the
liturgy of Mass. (Figure 10.29) The range of emotional content in
Christian imagery is vast and ever-changing. This diversity is a typical
characteristic for objects related to devotional use, as the
nature of active faith is to grow and change, ever producing fresh new expressions.
The
variety of liturgical equipment conceived for Christian rituals
over the centuries provided a great outlet for inventiveness. While some
versions of ritual objects were simple and utilitarian in design, others
clearly spurred flights of great fancy and flair. An important symbolic
and functional object in all worship centers is the candlestick, and a
tremendous variety was created.
One of the most elaborate was
the enormous seven-branched candelabra cast of gem-studded bronze and
covered with a mass of imagery of saints, plants, animals, and angels,
with the whole immense and tangled array supported on four large
dragon-form feet. The complexity of
the iconography, as well as the intricacy of the work, is befuddling.
Candleholders were not simply basic pieces of equipment but also
carriers of implications for the spiritual quest and the nature of
religious inspiration, at least in part based on the symbolism of light
as a representation of the Holy Spirit, purity, and peace.
Service
objects for the altar table also received a great deal of attention,
respect, and their fair share of artistic ingenuity. The chalice of Doña
Urraca, from Spain, exemplifies spolia, the re-use of precious objects
and materials from the past. (Figure 10.30) As daughter and sister to
kings, Doña Urraca oversaw monasteries and made provisions for their
liturgies with lavish equipment. Made up of two antique onyx vessels for
the base and cup, the chalice was fashioned with gem-studded bands and
inscribed as a gift from Doña Urraca to the palace chapel in Léon,
Spain.
An ivory situla, or small bucket, is another liturgical object
used for sprinkling holy water in blessing at the Mass and other
rituals, accomplished by dipping a sprinkler or a spray of leaves or
straw into the vessel and flicking the water across the crowd. (Figure
10.31) This example is finely carved out of ivory with scenes from the
life of Christ and supplied with bands and inlay of gilt copper.
Additional liturgical equipment includes vestments; these often have
received great attention, as well. (Figure 10.32) This 14th-century example from England is of velvet embroidered with silk, metal
thread, and seed pearls that ornament scenes from the life of the Virgin
Mary.
Special attention was also paid to books of Scriptures, as well as
those that were used for the Mass and other ceremonies. In the Middle
Ages, the pages of books had to be created as manuscripts on parchment
or vellum, as we have observed be- fore; they were frequently supplied
with lavish and showy covers, particularly those that might be used by
important people or for important occasions. The commissioning of such
was another deep and significant expression of faith due to the sacred
writings they contained, the value of all liturgical equipment, and the
merit accrued by donating riches for spiritual purposes.
The
front and back covers of the Lindau Book Gospels were created at two
different times and places with somewhat different design ideas. It was created by
the Limbourg Brothers (Herman, Paul, and Johan, active 1402-1416,
Netherlands) for John, Duke of Berry, a French prince. Throughout its
heavily illustrated pages or leaves, it is brightly colored, carefully
inscribed, and replete with depictions of the Duke and of his many
architectural and land holdings. It is well known for its calendar pages
that depict activities associated with the changing seasons of the
year, such as this scene of January showing the Duke seated in
resplendent blue to the right at a sumptuous feast. (Figure 10.34)
![Figure 10.34 / January, Artist: Limbourg Brothers](https://learn.saylor.org/pluginfile.php/5605102/mod_book/chapter/49226/Figure-10-34-January.png)
A significant visual spiritual event
is the ritual creation of a sand mandala, often performed for a specific
occasion by a group of Tibetan Buddhist monks. However, other spiritual and cultural groups create related works. (Figure
10.35) Systematically building a complex mandala involves a carefully
planned and meticulously executed approach with specific pictorial implications. Basically a diagram of the Buddhist
conception of the universe, mandalas might vary in expression of
particular beliefs, teachings, or purposes.
The process can take several weeks; on its completion, it is destroyed and
ritually discarded, perhaps in a fire or a lake, to symbolize the
fleeting nature of the material world. An impressive and colorful
spectacle to witness, it is accompanied by additional sensual
stimulation from the sounds of chanting and the scraping of the colors
for the design, as well as the fragrance of flowers and incense.