Critical Perspectives

From the first forms of art criticism in ancient Greece, the discussion of meaning in art has taken many directions. As we realized above, the professional art critic is one of the gatekeepers who, through writing, endorse or reject particular kinds of art, whether in style, artistic ability, or message. In fact, studying the different ways to look at art can tell us much about changing times and philosophies: the role of aesthetics, economics, and other cultural issues have much to do with the origin of these philosophical positions. Of course, none of them are completely true but simply different types of discourse. People approach meaning from different perspectives. The artworks sit silently while all around them, the voices change. We are at a time when there are several, sometimes greatly conflicting, ways of thinking about meaning in art. Here are six different perspectives art critics use as compasses to interpret meaning.

Structural Criticism

We started this course with a discussion of what art is. That discussion was actually based on one of the ways to look at art: what is known as structuralism. Structuralism is based on the notion that our concept of reality is expressed through language and related systems of communication. On a larger scale, visualize culture as a structure whose foundation is language, speech, and other forms of communication. When this approach is applied to the visual arts, the art world becomes a collective human construction, where a single work needs to be judged within the framework supported by the whole structure of art. This structure is still based on language and knowledge and how we communicate ideas. I often use the example of the word "cowboy."

In your head: visualize a cowboy: then describe what you saw. What gender was your person? What race was this person? Now let's apply those answers to historical facts. The fact is upwards of 60% of the historical cowboys in the United States were black slaves freed after the civil war. Did you see your cowboy as white?

Your idea of a cowboy may have come from film, an extremely different form of reality. The structural idea manifests itself when we look for meaning in the art based on any preconceived ideas about it we already have in our minds. These preconceptions (or limitations) are shaped by language, social interaction, and other cultural experiences.

Deconstructive Criticism

Deconstructive criticism goes one step further and posits that any work of art can have many meanings attached to it, none of which are limited by a particular language or experience outside the work itself. In other words, the critic must reveal (deconstruct) the structured world to knock out any underpinnings of stereotypes, preconceptions, or myths that get in the way of true meaning.

Taking the perspective of a deconstructive critic, we would view a portrait of Marilyn Monroe by pop artist Andy Warhol as an imaginary construct of what is real. As a popular culture icon, Marilyn Monroe, the movie star, was ubiquitous: in film, magazines, television, and photographs. But Marilyn Monroe, the person, committed suicide in 1962 at the height of her stardom. In truth, the bright lights and celebrity of her Hollywood persona eclipsed the real Marilyn, someone who was troubled, confused, and alone. Warhol's many portraits of her – each made from the same publicity photograph – perpetuate the myth and cult of celebrity.

Formalist Criticism

Formalist criticism is what we engage in when we look at the elements and principles of art. Formalism does not really care about what goes on outside the actual space of the work but finds meaning in its use of materials. Clement Greenberg was a champion of the formalist approach. He stressed "medium specificity": the notion of inherent meaning in how materials are used to create the artwork. As it relates to painting and works on paper, the result focuses on the two-dimensional surface. This is contrary to its traditional use as a platform for the illusion of depth.

Formalism allows a more reasoned discussion of abstract and nonrepresentational art because we can approach them on their own terms, where the subject matter becomes the medium instead of something it represents. This is a good way to approach artworks from cultures we are not familiar with, though it has the tendency to make them purely decorative and devalue any deeper meaning. It also allows training in visual seeing, so it is still used in all studio arts and art appreciation courses.

Greenberg was a strong defender of the Abstract Expressionist painting style that developed in the United States after World War II. He referred to it as "pure painting" because of its insistence on the act of painting, eventually releasing it from its ties to representation.

Ideological Criticism

Ideological criticism is concerned with the relationship between art and structures of power. It infers that art is embedded in a social, economic, and political structure that determines its final meaning. Born of the writings of Karl Marx, ideological criticism translates art and artifacts as symbols that reflect political ideals and reinforce one version of reality over another. A literal example of this perspective would view the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC as a testament to a political system that oppressed people because of race yet summoned the political will to set them free in the process of ending a Civil War.

The Lincoln Memorial, Washington DC

In contrast, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner's painting Frann Front of a Carved Chair from 1910 is also considered a symbol of artistic (hence, political) freedom. His Expressionist art – with its strong, sometimes arbitrary colors and rough approach to forms, was denounced by Nazi Germany as being "degenerate." The Degenerate Art Exhibition of 1937 was a way for the German political establishment to label modern art as evil and corrupt. Hitler's regime was only interested in heroic, representational, and idealistic images, which Kirchner rebelled against. Kirchner and other Expressionist artists were marginalized, and the authorities destroyed many of their works.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Franzi In Front of A Carved Chair, 1910, oil on canvas. Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid

Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism is how we should look at work if we feel it is only about personal expression. The purest form of this criticism ranks the work of untrained and mentally ill artists as being just as important as any other art. In this way, the artist's "inside" is more important than any other reason the art happens or the effect the art has. When people discuss Vincent van Gogh, they often mention his mental state more than his actual artwork, experience, or career. This is a good example of psychoanalytic criticism. One of the problems with this type of criticism is that the critic usually discusses issues the artist may be totally unaware of (they may deny these issues exist).

Feminist Criticism

Feminist criticism began in the 1970s as a response to the neglect of women artists over time and in historical writings. This form of criticism specifically refers to viewing art as an example of gender bias in historical western European culture. It views all work as a manifestation of this bias. Feminist criticism created entire movements in the art world (specifically performance-based art) and has changed over the last few years to include other underrepresented groups. Examples of feminist art include Judy Chicago's large-scale installation The Dinner Party, and the work of Nancy Spero.

All of these six critical perspectives hold some truth. Art is a multifaceted medium that contains influences from the characteristics of the culture where it was created and some that transcend cultural environments. These perspectives and different levels of meaning help us unravel some of the mysteries inherent in works of art and bring us closer to seeing how art expresses the feelings, ideas, and experiences we all share. In our search, it is important to be aware of these issues. Take aspects of each critical position depending on the work you are viewing and the environment (and context) where you are viewing it. And make up your own mind.

Source: Christopher Gildow, http://opencourselibrary.org/art-100-art-appreciation/
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