Materials and Techniques

A Wide Variety

Egyptian artists used a wide array of materials, both local and imported, from early in their history. For instance, already in the Predynastic period, we find figurines carved from lapis lazuli, a lustrous blue stone that originates in what is now Afghanistan and indicates the early presence of robust trade routes.

Group of stones collected in Egypt showing the range of colors and textures available to ancient artists.

Stone

There were numerous native stones used for statuary, including the ubiquitous soft limestone of the desert cliffs that line most of the Nile valley, as well as sandstone, calcite, and schist.

Harder stones include quartzite, diorite, granite, and basalt. Carving on softer stones was done using copper chisels and stone tools; hard stone required tools of yet harder stone, copper alloys, and abrasive sand to shape them. Polishing was achieved with a smooth rubbing stone and abrasive sands with fine grit.

Painted Statuary

Most statuary was painted; even stones selected for the symbolism of their color were often painted. For instance, the exemplary statues of Menkaure, builder of the smallest of the three major pyramids at Giza, were executed in dark schist (also called graywacke). This smooth black stone is connected with Osiris, resurrected god of the dead, who was often shown with black or green skin referring to the fertile silt and lush vegetation of the Nile valley.

Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Khamerernebty(?), graywacke, c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

These images preserve traces of red paint on the king's skin, indicating that, when completed and placed in his memorial temple near his pyramid, they would have appeared lifelike in coloration. With time, the paint would have flaked away, revealing the black stone underneath and explicitly linking the deceased king with the Lord of the Underworld.

Wood

Egyptian artists also used a variety of woods in their work, including the native acacia, tamarisk, sycamore fig, fir, cedar, and other conifers imported from Syria. Artisans excelled at puzzling together small, irregular pieces of wood and pegged them into place to create statuary, coffins, boxes, and furniture.

Ceremonial gilded wooden shield from the tomb of Tutakhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo (New Kingdom)

Metals

They also executed pieces in various metals, including copper, copper alloys (such as bronze), gold, and silver. Cult statues of gods were made in gold and silver – materials identified by myth as their skin and bones – and were often quite small. Very few metal statues survive because they were often melted down and the material reused. However, preserved examples from the Old and Middle Kingdoms demonstrate that they were skilled not only in sheet metal forming but also practiced complex casting.

Tutankhamun's lunar pectoral in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo (New Kingdom)

Jewelry work was quite sophisticated even in the Old Kingdom, as demonstrated by some highly creative pieces depicted in tomb scenes. A cache of royal jewelry from the tombs of Middle Kingdom princesses displays extremely high levels of skill in terms of design as well as precisely cut stone inlays, repoussé, and cloisonné.

Many objects, especially small amulets, and inlays were made from a manufactured material known as Egyptian faience. This quartz-based medium could be easily shaped, molded, and mass-produced. The glaze coating could be almost any color, depending on the minerals used in the composition, although turquoise blue is the most common.

Relief Sculpture

Relief was usually carved before being painted. The two primary relief classes are raised relief (where the figures stand up from the surface) and sunk relief (where the figures are cut into and below the surface). The surface would be smoothed with a layer of plaster and then painted. If the surface was not carved before painting, several layers of mud plaster would be applied to create a flat plane.

Painted raised relief in the Temple of Seti I at Abydos (New Kingdom)

The drawing surface would be delineated using gridded guidelines and snapped onto the wall using string coated in red pigment dust (like chalk lines used by modern carpenters). This grid helped the artists properly proportion the figures and lay out the scenes. Scene elements were drafted using red paint, corrections were noted in black paint, and the painting was executed one color at a time. Even on carved relief, many elements in a scene would be executed only in paint and not cut into the surface.

Iron oxide nodules, source of a range of red pigments, Thebes

Pigments

Most pigments in Egypt were derived from local minerals. White was often made from gypsum, black from carbon, red and yellow from iron oxides, blue and green from azurite and malachite, and bright yellow (representing gold) from orpiment. These minerals were ground and mixed with plant or animal-based glue to make a medium to attach to the walls. They could be applied as a single plane but were also layered to create subtle effects and additional colors, such as pink or gray.

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