GEOG101 Study Guide

10a. Describe how the different landscapes in Oceania relate to their distance from tectonic plate boundaries and factors that have contributed to their high levels of biodiversity

• What are the principal geographic regions of Oceania?
• What is the difference between high and low islands?
• How are low islands related to high islands?
• Which regions are dominated by high or low islands?
  

Oceania is dominated by the maritime climate of the Pacific Ocean. Australia is the largest landmass in the region. It is relatively stable geologically because it lies in the middle of its own tectonic plate. The country is relatively flat, has no active volcanoes, and has only had a few large earthquakes. The interior of the country, known as the Outback, is dominated by arid deserts and grasslands. The Great Dividing Range of mountains separates the Outback from the more temperate forest on the eastern coast.
 
In addition to Australia, Oceania includes three major island groups located throughout the Pacific Ocean. Polynesia is a large, triangular region that stretches from New Zealand to Easter Island to the Hawaiian and Midway Islands. The large islands of Melanesia (New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji) lie to the west of Polynesia, northeast of Australia. The tiny islands of Micronesia are north of Melanesia.
 
These three island groups are characterized by different types of islands. The distinction between high islands and low islands is based on their origin rather than their elevation. High islands are of volcanic origin, and low islands are coral atolls that were formed from the sedimentation or uplift of coral reefs. We see examples of low islands that are hundreds of feet in elevation. Nauru in Micronesia is 233 feet above sea level. Likewise, some high islands are only a few hundred feet above sea level.
 
High and low islands are often located near each other because low islands typically surround submerged extinct volcanoes as atolls. The islands that were once high have eroded so much that they have subsided, leaving only a ring of growing coral visible at the surface. Most of Micronesia is composed of low islands, whereas Polynesia and Melanesia have many high islands. All three regions intersect the Pacific Ring of Fire.
 
To review, see Map of Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and Physical Landscape of Oceania.
 

10b. Explain how political struggles among members of the international community have influenced Antarctica and the world's oceans

• What countries claimed territory in Antarctica before 1959?
• Explain what the Antarctic Treaty regulates.
• Who lives in Antarctica?
  

Before 1959, seven countries claimed territory in Antarctica: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Friction among several claimant countries led to negotiations that resulted in the Antarctic Treaty, which regulates international relations regarding Antarctica.
 
In addition to the seven claimants, five additional countries signed the Antarctic Treaty: Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the United States, and the Soviet Union. There are now 54 signatories to the Antarctic Treaty.
 
Countries that want consultative status demonstrate their commitment to the continent by engaging in substantial research there. The signatories have agreed to set the continent aside as a scientific preserve that is restricted to peaceful purposes. The Treaty bans military activity, resource extraction, and waste disposal.
 
The most recent action to increase the environmental protection of Antarctica was the Madrid Protocol in 1998. One of the new key provisions of the Treaty is a requirement that all activities, including tourism, undergo an environmental assessment. Antarctica does not have a native human population. The people who live there staff research stations: about 1,000 people are there in the winter and about 5,000 in the summer.
 
To review, see World's Oceans and Polar Frontiers, Haunting Photos of Polar Ice, and Exploring Antarctica: To the South Pole and Back.

 

10c. Relate the dynamic nature of the polar regions to climate change, including how the physical attributes of the countries in Oceania affect their ability to respond

• Why are the effects of global warming on Antarctica critical for the entire world?
  

As Earth's atmospheric temperature increases, Antarctica's ice pack decreases. In addition to the rising global sea level as the Antarctic ice sheet melts, global temperatures have been increasing. Without white snow and ice to reflect the Sun's rays, the remaining darker surfaces will absorb solar radiation, further increasing the temperature of Earth's atmosphere. The higher temperatures will also cause more extreme weather events.
 
The global sea level rise will drastically affect the countries in Oceania. The coral atolls of the Pacific are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels because many are only slightly above sea level. Many risk being totally submerged. Rising sea levels will also damage high islands by contaminating their fresh water supplies and agricultural land.
 
To review, see World's Oceans and Polar Frontiers, Haunting Photos of Polar Ice, and Exploring Antarctica: To the South Pole and Back.
 

10d. Describe the factors contributing to Oceania's varying degrees of urbanization, economic activities, and patterns of settlement

• How has the relative isolation of Oceania affected its economic activities?
  

It took thousands of years and advances in navigation and ocean transportation for humans to settle the rest of the Pacific islands. People gradually migrated to Melanesia and Fiji by 900 BCE, and then east and north. Humans did not populate the far reaches of Polynesia, including Hawaii and Easter Island, until much later due to the long distances that separate their landmasses. The islands of New Zealand were one of the last to be settled – Eastern Polynesians did not arrive until around 1,250 CE. The population established themselves as the Māori.

Map of Human Migrations across the Pacific Islands

The countries of Oceania struggle economically due to their relative distance and isolation from other world regions. We call this the tyranny of distance. Most of the economies are based on exports, which are more expensive since they must be shipped. Of course, imports also require shipping. Some islands have adopted import-substitution industries to replace foreign imports with domestic production.
 
Australia is relatively unique among developed countries because its economy is heavily based on commodity exports. Geography plays a major role in its export-oriented economy. Australia has a significant amount of natural resources – it exports more coal than any other country and has the world's second-largest diamond mine.
 
Geography is key to the economic development of the Pacific's smaller islands, whose natural resources tend to be limited. These remote islands rely on long shipping routes, and many depend on trade with Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and the United States. Many residents speak Pidgin English, a simplified form of English, in addition to their native tongue. Tourism offers a significant source of income for many Pacific countries, such as the islands of Fiji.
 
To review, see The Patterns of Human Settlement in Australia and the Pacific, Australia's Core Areas, and Population Density of New Zealand.
 

10e. Summarize the human geography of Oceania before and after colonialism and the role isolation plays in the region in terms of global connectivity

• Why are the Pacific islands considered an extreme peripheral realm?
• Long self-sufficient, why must many Pacific Islands now rely on core regions for economic support?
• How has globalization affected the islands of the Pacific?
• Explain why tourism is important to the economies of the Pacific Islands.
  

We consider all three regions of the Pacific – Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia – an extreme peripheral realm because their natural resources have not, historically, been vital to any core areas.
 
Fishing has long supported the economies of the Pacific Islands, but overfishing has made maintaining this food staple impossible. Increasing population rates have exacerbated the problem of low fish stocks. Consequently, the Pacific Islands are increasingly dependent on the world's core regions to feed their population and gain national wealth. Although some islands have natural resources, such as the phosphates mined on the Micronesian island of Nauru, most depend on their attractive climate and beaches. Tourism is a major source of revenue.
 
Several islands and archipelagos are under the jurisdiction of the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. Consequently, western culture has significantly influenced the traditional cultures of Guam, the Northern Marianas Islands, Wake Island, American Samoa, the Hawaiian Islands, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Pitcairn Islands, and the Cook Islands. Modern technology has made globalization inevitable even among the independent countries of the Pacific Island realm. The islands of the Pacific are not as isolated as they once were.
 
To review, see The Patterns of Human Settlement in Australia and the Pacific, Stories My Family Forgot: Assimilation of Indigenous Communities, Australian Residents by Country of Birth, Pacific Nations Grapple with COVID's Terrible Toll, and Laws Governing Undersea Cables Have Hardly Changed Since 1884.
 

10f. Summarize the main environmental concerns of the Pacific islands, including how different types of islands respond to the effects of climate change

• What natural hazards threaten many of these islands?
• Why is freshwater in short supply on many islands?
• How is climate change expected to affect the Pacific Islands?
  

Various environmental issues challenge the regions of the Pacific Islands. Troops from Japan, the United States, and New Zealand all fought on the islands during World War II. Guam, Hawaii, Fiji, and New Caledonia were particularly affected by deforestation, ordnance dumping, and the introduction of invasive species, among other forms of environmental degradation.
 
During the Cold War, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States tested their nuclear weapons on the islands of the Pacific. For example, the United States detonated its nuclear weapons on the Bikini Atoll, which is part of the Marshall Islands in eastern Micronesia. Radioactive fallout and the presence of unexploded ordinances (bombs, shells, grenades, and land mines), which often kill and maim farmers and other passersby, remain a concern.
 
Because many Pacific islands are part of the Ring of Fire, they are vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunami waves. Their remote locations complicate evacuation efforts.
 
The increasing population on many of these islands has also strained their freshwater supplies. The islands must rely on rainfall to replenish their freshwater resources.
 
In addition to these challenges, sea level rise due to climate change threatens the existence of many of these island countries. The islands of Kiribati in Micronesia and Polynesia may, for example, become completely submerged. On other islands, sea level rise means the contamination of freshwater supplies and agricultural land, and other hazards.
 
To review, see The Changing Landscape of Oceania, Kiribati and Sea Level Rise, My Country Will Be Underwater Soon Unless We Work Together, Antarctica's Riskiest Glacier Is Under Assault, and Ordinance Dumping and Environmental Degradation.
 

Unit 10 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms listed above that students need to know to successfully complete the final exam for the course.

• Antarctica
• Antarctic Treaty
• Australia
• Bikini Atoll
• commodity export
• coral atoll
• Easter Island
• environmental degradation
• extreme peripheral realm
• high island
• ice pack
• ice sheet
• Kiribati
• low island
• Madrid Protocol
• maritime climate
• Melanesia
• Micronesia
• Māori
• Nauru
• Oceania
• Outback
• Pidgin English
• Polynesia
• sea level rise
• tourism
• tyranny of distance