GEOG101: World Regional Geography

9a. Summarize the physical geography of East and Southeast Asia, including its natural hazards and environmental challenges

• What impact do the Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau have on the physical geography of China and Mongolia?
• Why is Japan prone to earthquakes?
• What features separate the mainland and insular regions of Southeast Asia?
  

Due to its proximity to tectonic plate boundaries, the realm of East Asia experiences earthquakes and volcanoes and includes some of the most dramatic landscapes. The Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau resulted from a collision between the Indian tectonic plate and the Eurasian tectonic plate. Their influence extends beyond that collision zone into central and eastern China and southern Mongolia. The rain shadow effect of the Himalayan Mountains prevents moisture-laden air from reaching the Gobi Desert, which straddles China and Mongolia. In addition, the headwaters of the Yangtze (Yangzi) River and Yellow (Huang He) River are in the Tibetan Plateau. They are the third- and sixth-longest rivers in the world.
 
To the east of China, the islands of Japan are volcanic islands at the intersection of four tectonic plates and part of the Ring of Fire. Consequently, Japan is prone to earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions.
 
The Arakan Mountains and Naga Hills stretch across Myanmar and India to the south and southeast of China. China's Yunnan Plateau has rolling hills that divide Southeast Asia from the rest of the continent. The Mekong and Irrawaddy Rivers dominate this region.
 
Separated from mainland Southeast Asia by the South China Sea and the Strait of Malacca, the islands that comprise insular Southeast Asia are also part of the Ring of Fire, which means they are also prone to earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis.
 
To review, see Physical Landscape of East and Southeast Asia, Southeast Asia Physical Geography, Living with Disasters, and East and Southeast Asia: History and Settlement.
 

9b. Identify the paths of human settlement throughout East and Southeast Asia, including its location as a cultural hearth

• Describe the earliest settlements in East and Southeast Asia.
• How did the Ice Age affect human settlement in the region?
• How did trade help spread important religions and philosophies across the region?
  

Human settlement in East and Southeast Asia began in China around 80,000 years ago. During the New Stone Age, the people in this region made advances in farming and agriculture, domesticated animals, and created pottery to use in their homes. They grew rice along China's Yangtze River around 6,500 BCE. They later formed villages, created walled cities, and eventually established some of the world's greatest dynasties, or families of rulers.
 
While some humans stayed in East Asia, others went along the coast and populated other areas of Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 years ago. All of this occurred during the glacial period we call the Ice Age, when huge ice sheets covered North America, Europe, and Asia. Since these huge glaciers trapped such vast amounts of water, ocean levels were much lower than they are today. The islands of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia and Malaysia, formed a single landmass known as Sunda, while Australia and New Guinea comprised another large landmass known as Sahul.
 
The Chinese dynasties that emerged after 3,300 BCE were largely isolationist and were protected by the physical barriers that separated mainland China from the rest of Asia, including the Himalayas, the western highlands, and the Gobi Desert in East Asia. These dynasties dominated the political landscape throughout much of the region's history. They established a vast network of trade routes, supported a strong military, and forged connections with the people who lived in Korea and Japan. China was unified under the Han dynasty.
 
During this time, several indigenous religions and philosophies developed in China, including Confucianism. Confucius believed communities benefit from creating strong relationships – within the family and among members of society as a whole. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of human goodness and self-reflection rather than the need to worship a divine being. Confucius also believed in promoting education. His teachings have dominated Chinese, Japanese, and Korean culture for centuries.
 
Southeast Asia, on the other hand, was less isolationist than China. Trade routes promoted the spread of Hinduism and later Buddhism throughout the region. Port cities and religious or ceremonial centers, such as Angkor Wat, thrived. Business and personal connections also promoted Islam throughout Southeast Asia, such as the Sufi missionaries who advanced a mystical branch of Islam. Today, Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world.
 
To review, see East and Southeast Asia: History and Settlement, Foundations of East Asian Culture, Management Lessons from Chinese Business and Philosophy, The Ancient, Earth-Friendly Wisdom of Mongolian Nomads, Rebuilding the Silk Road, A Metropolis Arose in Medieval Cambodia, and The Khmer Empire.

 

9c. Explain the impact of colonialism on the region, including the concepts of shatter belt, domino theory, and the implementation of communism

• What was the extent of European colonization in East Asia?
• What European and East Asian powers colonized the realm of Southeast Asia?
• Why did communism emerge in China?
• Why did the United States intervene in Vietnam?
  

East and Southeast Asia exhibit characteristics of a shatter belt, an area of political conflict between states. For example, their quest for new opportunities for trade motivated Portugal and Spain to reach Southeast Asia during the 16th century, followed by the Netherlands, Britain, and France.
 
Japan responded in kind to defend itself against Europe's imperial ambitions. In 1868, the Japanese Emperor Meiji ended the shogunate and promoted a series of reforms during the Meiji Restoration to modernize and industrialize the country as they began a systematic study of the developed world.
 
European colonizers were not able to conquer China in the same way they were able to dominate other parts of Southeast Asia. China was more technologically advanced than other societies. For example, they had established transportation networks and were using paper and gunpowder before these advances had spread to Europe. They had already recognized the necessity of clean water to avoid the spread of disease.
 
However, the Industrial Revolution soon gave the Europeans an advantage. The Europeans were able to produce goods more quickly than the Chinese. The British also resorted to increasing the availability of opium, so it was accessible throughout Chinese society. The Chinese government sought to counter the devastating effects of opium on the population by destroying this deadly drug trade. The British demanded compensation for the opium the Chinese government had destroyed, leading to the Opium Wars. Britain's superior weapon systems meant it was able to dictate the terms of the "peace" agreements that followed.
 
Other countries also had a colonial presence in China. Portugal predated the British, renting the island of Macau from China to use as a trading post until it gained full colonial control after the Opium Wars. Germany, France, Japan, and Russia also had a colonial influence on China.
 
Although the European colonizers were less involved in China as they recovered from the effects of World War I, Japan continued to expand its influence. Japan sought more territory for its population, occupying much of Southeast Asia and China during World War II, including Thailand, which the European powers had not colonized. Britain controlled Myanmar to the west, while France controlled Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos to the east. The two colonial powers agreed to leave Thailand as a buffer between the territories they governed.
 
Throughout the 20th century, the nationalist Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China sought to control the country. Communist ideals had garnered popular support as the population responded to the exploitation of European colonialism.
 
In Europe, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels observed the exploitation of the working class in Germany and Great Britain during the preceding century and presented an alternative system (communism) that would place the major means of production (mines, mills, factories, and railroads) and the resulting profits in the hands of the working class (proletariat).
 
When Mao Zedong's communist army claimed victory in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government fled to Formosa (Taiwan). The Communists claimed the mainland as the People's Republic of China, and the Nationalists claimed Taiwan as the Republic of China.
 
As a site of competing colonial interests, Vietnam had long been pulled in different directions. By the time Vietnamese nationalist forces had pushed the French out of the country in 1954, there were competing visions for how Vietnam should move forward. Communist ideology had gained traction in the north, while the south preferred democracy and a free-market economy.
 
The international community picked sides: the Soviet Union supported the communist nationalists in the north, and the United States supported the non-communist faction to the south. U.S. policymakers feared Vietnam would "fall" to communism which would spread to its neighbors and shut out U.S. interests in Asia, according to the domino theory.
 
To review, see East and Southeast Asia's History and Settlement and Political Conflicts and Changes in East and Southeast Asia.

 

9d. Describe how factors such as location and population density have impacted the region's economic development, industrialization, and environmental challenges

• With so few natural resources, how can Japan be so successful economically?
• Who are the four Asian Tigers? How have these areas become economically successful?
• Explain why Singapore is an entrepôt for Southeast Asia.
• Why has the Philippines become attractive to global corporations?
  

Several factors helped Japan rebuild its economy after the devastation of World War II: Japan was an industrialized society before the war, the United States provided support to rebuild its infrastructure, and Japan's centripetal forces outweighed the centrifugal forces. Japan undertook major economic reforms, and the United States boosted the economy when it bought Japanese materials to fight in the Korean War.
 
Japan had become a dominant economic power despite its lack of natural resources. Centripetal forces (attitudes that unite people in support of the state) likely contributed to its economic success. Its population shares a common ethnic heritage and is not divided by competing interests. Its workforce is highly skilled and educated, savings rates and investment are generally high, and corporations take advantage of economies of scale. Japan's economic success is closely associated with its reputation for high-quality, durable manufactured goods.
 
Other parts of Asia have experienced high rates of economic growth, although China and Japan remain the region's largest economies. One example is the so-called Four Asian Tigers, a term referring to Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. These nations industrialized quickly and developed export-driven economies, low taxes, and free trade.
 
Singapore's strategic central location has enabled it to serve as an entrepôt, a port where goods are imported, stored, traded, and exported. It is a shipping gateway and airport hub. Although Singapore is a free-market economy, it maintains tight control over economic development to encourage foreign investment, including authoritarian-like policies to maintain social stability.
 
It participates in a trade triangle with Malaysia and Indonesia to compensate for its lack of raw materials and inexpensive labor. For example, Singapore receives crude oil from Indonesia, refines it, and then ships it to global markets. Due to the high percentage of ethnic Chinese, foreign corporations use Singapore as a geographic and cultural gateway to China.
 
The Philippines has also attracted the attention of global corporations interested in business process outsourcing (BPO) because it is politically stable, has an educated, professional labor force, employment costs are low, and the long-term United States' military presence meant English as a lingua franca. BPO can include a range of functions, such as payment processing, technical support, and sales. Many global corporations have created call centers in the Philippines, India, and Singapore to take advantage of the cost savings from outsourcing.
 
To review, see Geography of East Asia: Modern Issues, Interpretations of Communism, Patterns of Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Global China into the 21st Century, Hong Kong's Handover to China, Architecture in Modern Singapore, Comparing Singapore and Hong Kong, China's Global Infrastructure Projects, and Deforestation.
 

9e. Identify and explain the origins of territorial tensions in the region

• What is the "One China" policy?
• Explain the core-periphery relationship between China and Tibet.
• Describe the differences between South and North Korea.
• Describe the plight of the Rohingya people.
  

Because the East Asia region exhibits the traits of a shatter belt, territorial tensions continue to be felt among various countries. For example, the People's Republic of China (PRC) asserts only one sovereign state can use the name China, an approach called the one-China policy. Its leaders oppose Taiwan's use of the Republic of China (ROC). The PRC believes Taiwan is part of China's territory and must be reunified with the mainland. However, neither the PRC nor the ROC considers the other to be the legitimate national government of China.
 
Another example of territorial tensions in the region is the tempestuous relationship between Tibet and China. Historically, Tibet has been an independent theocracy – the Dalai Lama is its head of state and spiritual leader. However, Tibet has been under China's control since 1950. The Dalai Lama has been in exile in India since 1950, and China abducted the Panchen Lama in 1995. Although we call Tibet one of China's autonomous regions, in practice, Tibet has little autonomy.
 
China's strategic interest in Tibet is due to geography and economics. Tibet buffers China from India and has valuable natural resources. As the rural periphery of China's urban core, Tibet can provide minerals, energy resources, and timber to support China's industrial development.
 
Similarly, the residents of Hong Kong (and much of the international community) had hoped China would continue following a policy that allowed Hong Kong to manage its own affairs as a free-market economy, with independent courts and protection of basic political rights. However, China changed course in 2020.
 
Most regard North Korea's version of communism as the most repressive in the world. Its citizens and centralized economy are tightly controlled; individuals cannot move freely and can only access state-run media. Living conditions for North Koreans are desperate, with food shortages and inadequate energy to provide electricity consistently.
 
It is not surprising that conflicts continue in East and Southeast Asia, given its colonial history and strategic location. In 2021, Myanmar's military seized power from a democratically-elected party in a coup. The military government has responded to protests with violence, and human rights abuses are widespread. Ethnic groups continue to fight for increased autonomy and independence.
 
The Rohingya are a Muslim community connected to Rakhine State in Myanmar. In 1882, Myanmar's Citizenship Law excluded the Rohingya from full citizenship because it claimed they were not an official indigenous race. The Rohingya have been violently driven from their homes with charges of genocide. However, few countries are willing to provide them with a safe haven.
 
To review, see Patterns of Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Political Conflicts and Changes in East and Southeast Asia, Interpretations of Communism, The Korean Peninsula at Night, A Year after Myanmar's Coup, The Rohingya Quest for Better Refuge, and Hong Kong's Handover to China.
 

Unit 9 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms listed above that students need to know to successfully complete the final exam for the course.

• Angkor Wat
• business process outsourcing (BPO)
• centripetal force
• communism
• Communist Party of China
• Confucianism
• Dalai Lama
• domino theory
• dynasty
• entrepôt
• Four Asian Tigers
• glacier
• Gobi Desert
• Han dynasty
• Hong Kong
• Ice Age
• Indonesia
• Irrawaddy River
• Kuomintang
• Macau
• Malaysia
• Meiji Restoration
• Mekong River
• Mongolia
• New Stone Age
• North Korea
• one-China policy
• Opium Wars
• People's Republic of China (PRC)
• Philippines
• proletariat
• Republic of China (ROC)
• Ring of Fire
• Rohingya
• shatter belt
• Singapore
• Strait of Malacca
• Taiwan
• Tibet
• Tibetan Plateau
• tsunami
• Yangtze (Yangzi) River
• Yellow (Huang He) River